NTR was born as a military-technical revolution. Stages of scientific and technological revolution: main directions, stages, structure and consequences
Content
Introduction ............................................................... .................................... ................. ............. ...3
1. Essence and main features of scientific and technological revolution
1.1 Prerequisites for the emergence of scientific and technological revolution and its definition ...............................................5
1.2 Main directions of scientific and technological revolution ............................................... ........... ...............12
1.3 Features of scientific and technological revolution ............................................... .......... .............................. .16
2. The value of scientific and technological revolution, its consequences……………………………………..... ..........20
Conclusion.................... ............................. . ............................. ................... .......... 22
List of references……………………………………………... 24
Introduction
The scientific and technological revolution is sweeping the planet with a wide stride. There is no area of life that has not experienced its transformative impact. Production and science, the service sector and management, man himself - everything is changing under its mighty onslaught. Major discoveries, inventions, the knowledge of new properties of matter, the emergence of new branches of science are made in a daily stream.
The relevance of this topic is due to the fact that already in ancient times the discovery of something new in the nature of things was experienced by an individual as a social value superior to any others.From the 17th century to the present, mankind has discovered many scientific discoveries which made his life easier. Carnot created his theoretical model of a heat engine, and pretty soon steam boilers began to work with a high efficiency. As soon as Hertz discovered radio waves, Popov's first radio transmitter appeared here. Einstein described a phenomenon that can happen with light, and many laboratories, clinics, entire industries cannot imagine their work without a laser. PhilosopherFrancis Bacon said "The true and legitimate aim of all sciences is to endow human life with new acquisitions and riches."At the same time, “in science, more than in any other institution of mankind, it is necessary to study the past in order to understand the present and dominate nature in the future” (John Bernal), since the history of each discovery is a model of the history of other discoveries, including those to be made. “The Great Discovery is not a terminal station, but rather a road leading into areas hitherto unknown. We climb to the top of the peak, and another peak opens up to us, even higher than we have ever seen so far, and so it goes on,” wrote J. Thomson, the man who discovered the electron. The most striking regularity of natural science is that the more complete and perfect a theory seems, the more reason to consider it doomed to revision, either in whole or in part. Seneca noted: "The time will come when our descendants will be surprised that we did not know such obvious things." We really see thatScientific achievements are becoming a decisive factor in the social and economic process in the modern world. The specific indicators of the science intensity of production are growing, especially in the space and pharmaceutical industries and enterprises that produce means and services of communication, and create software for computers. The rapid development of information technologies based on the Internet, computer technology produced in the 90s. a real revolution in the processes of exchange and storage of scientific and technical information.
The purpose of this essay is to analyze the essence and main features of the scientific and technological revolution, its directions, consequences based on the literature on this topic, the significance of scientific and technological revolution in the modern world.
1. Essence and main features of scientific and technological revolution
- Prerequisites for the emergence of scientific and technological revolution and its definition
The scientific and technological revolution did not arise from scratch, it was preceded by many discoveries in science and technology. And before characterizing the scientific and technological revolution, it is necessary to define science and technology. Science is “in a broad sense, the totality of all information subjected to some mental verification or report and brought into a certain systematic order, from theology, metaphysics, pure mathematics and ending with heraldry, numismatics, the doctrine of the hoof of cavalry horses”[Philosophical Dictionary of Vladimir Solovyov, Ed. "Phoenix", 1997, p.316].More specifically, the following definition is more precise.
Science is a sphere human activity, the function of which is the development and theoretical systematization of objective knowledge about reality [Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1982, p. 403].
Born in ancient world in connection with the needs of social practice, science began to take shape from the 16th-17th centuries. and in the course of historical development has become a productive force and the most important social institution, which has a significant impact on all spheres of society. Back in 1884, V. Engels formulated the position on the accelerated development of science: “... Science moves forward in proportion to the mass of knowledge inherited from the previous generation ...” [Marx K. and Engels F., soch., vol. 1, p. 568].
Science is developing exponentially. The volume of scientific activity doubles every 10 to 15 years, which is reflected in the accelerated growth in the number of scientific discoveries and scientific information, as well as in the number of people employed in science. Science aims to reveal the laws according to which objects can be transformed in human activity. Scattered, chaotic information is not scientific knowledge. Science is a special form of social consciousness, reflecting the world in the form of scientific ideas, concepts, theories, a branch of spiritual production in which millions of people are employed and the main products of which are concepts, laws, theories, a social institution with its own structure and functions. In science, two opposite sides (or essences) are simultaneously embodied: the spiritual, which manifests itself in the fact that science acts as a special form of knowledge (cognition), and the material, which is most clearly expressed in the fact that science acts as a direct productive force [. Science is divided into many branches of knowledge, which differ among themselves in what side of reality, the form of matter they study. Natural and human sciences, social sciences, sciences about thinking and technical, fundamental and applied, etc. are distinguished. The boundaries between them are mobile.
In the development of science, extensive and revolutionary periods alternate - scientific revolutions, leading to a change in its structure, principles of consciousness, categories and methods, as well as forms of its organization; science is characterized by a dialectical combination of the processes of its differentiation and integration, the development of fundamental and applied research. In the history of human knowledge, revolutionary changes have repeatedly occurred, both in certain areas of scientific knowledge and in science as a whole. The decisive and radical breaking of outdated views, the creation of a fundamentally new, deeper scientific theory testify to this kind of revolution. Facts that do not fit within the framework of old scientific theories are comprehended in a new way, new theories are created, new principles are introduced that open up wider possibilities for the practical application of science [Man - science - technology. M.: Politizdat, 1973, p.19]. Starting from the 15th century, science gradually freed itself from scholasticism, from the influence of the church, and was enriched by the achievements of natural science. Scholasticism is knowledge divorced from life, based on abstract reasoning, not verified by experience. However, this revolution was not accompanied by a revolution in technology, which during this period was still developing on the basis of empirical achievements derived from its own practice. Since the 16th century, the nature of scientific progress has changed significantly. In the development of science there are turning points, crises, reaching a qualitatively new level of knowledge, radically changing the previous vision of the world. These critical stages in the genesis of scientific knowledge are called scientific revolutions. . Moreover, a revolution in science is, as a rule, not a short-term event, because fundamental changes in scientific knowledge require a certain time. Therefore, in any scientific revolution, one can chronologically single out some more or less long historical period during which it occurs. Periods of revolutions in science, noted the world famous physicist Louis de Broglie, "always characterize decisive stages in the progressive development of our knowledge." These decisive stages in the development of fundamental sciences can be divided according to the results and degree of influence on the development of science as a whole, global scientific revolutions and "microrevolutions" in individual sciences. The latter mean the creation of new theories in a particular field of science that change ideas about a certain, relatively narrow range of phenomena, but do not have a decisive influence on the existing scientific picture of the world, do not require a radical change in the way of scientific thinking. Revolutions in individual sciences took place more than once: in chemistry - thanks to Lavoisier's oxygen theory (late 18th century), in biology - in connection with the emergence of Darwin's evolutionary theory (second half of the 19th century), in physics - as a result of the discovery of the law of conservation and transformation energy (mid-nineteenth century). The revolution in individual sciences sometimes developed into fundamental revolutionary changes in the entire system of developing knowledge. During these periods, there was a radical break in the general approach to the study and interpretation of the phenomena of nature and society.
The global scientific revolution leads to the formation of a completely new vision of the world, causes the emergence of fundamentally new ideas about its structure and functioning, and also entails new ways and methods of its cognition. A global scientific revolution can initially take place in one of the fundamental sciences (or even form this science), turning it into a science leader for a certain historical period. The latter means that there is a kind of expansion of its new ideas, principles, methods that arose in the course of the revolution, to other areas of knowledge and to the worldview in general. The long process of formation of modern natural science began with the scientific revolutions that took place in the 16th-17th centuries. and created a fundamentally new (compared with antiquity and the Middle Ages) understanding of the world. Mankind has experienced several such scientific revolutions. The first of them, covering the period from the 16th to the 18th centuries, began with the creation of a heliocentric picture of the world. The second revolution is characterized by the fact that at the end of the 18th century - at the beginning of the 19th century there is a transition from classical science, focused on the study of mechanical and physical phenomena, to a disciplinedly organized science. In the middle of the 19th century, the third scientific revolution took place in all areas of scientific knowledge: the discovery of the cellular structure of living organisms, the law of conservation and transformation of energy, etc., as noted above.
Revolutions are also taking place in the field of technology. At a certain level of development of any technical means, a situation occurs when its further improvement no longer gives the desired effect, and the use of the principle inherent in its design does not provide a solution to the technical problem. Then there is a need for a radical transformation of technology. Replacing old technical means with new ones, working on completely different principles, means a revolution in the development of technical means.
Technique (from the Greek techne - art, skill, skill) - in the narrow sense, the term "Technology" is a set of artificial means of human activity, primarily material tools that increase its effectiveness in various areas of society, in production and non-production areas [Kondrashov V.A., Chekalov D.A., Koporulina V.N. The latest philosophical dictionary, Ed.3-e-Rostov n / D: Phoenix, 2008, pp. 540-541].
As a concept, technology has two meanings. In the first, it denotes tools and tools of labor and any artificial devices (artifacts) created by man and used to transform the environment, acting as means of labor to create other means of production and objects necessary to satisfy various needs. In the second sense, it denotes a system of skills, the level of mastery in the implementation of a particular type of activity. Technology materializes the knowledge and experience accumulated in the process of developing social production. The main purpose of technology is to facilitate and increase the efficiency of human labor efforts, expand its capabilities in the process of labor activity, and free (partially or completely) a person from work in conditions hazardous to health. Means of technology are used to influence the objects of labor in the creation of material and cultural values; for receiving, transferring and converting energy; study of the laws of nature and society; collection and storage, processing and transmission of information; production process management; creating materials with pre-created properties; movement and communications; household and cultural services; [Soviet Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1989, p. 1340].Revolutions can also take place in the entire aggregate technology used in social production. Such revolutions consist in the appearance and implementation of inventions that cause a revolution in the means of labor, types of energy, production technology, in the objects of labor and in the general material conditions of the production process. In the history of society, several broad technical revolutions are known, which each time led to a new, higher level of development of the productive forces. The most significant so far has been the technological revolution, which caused the industrial revolution in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. - transition from craftand manufactory to machine production.Under the influence of major scientific and technical discoveries, the increased interaction of science with technology and production in the middle of the 20th century, a scientific and technological revolution arose, the beginning of which was prepared by the outstanding successes of natural science in late XIX- the beginning of the twentieth century. These include the discovery of the complex structure of the atom as a system of particles rather than an indivisible whole; the discovery of radioactivity and the transformation of elements; creation of the theory of relativity and quantum mechanics; understanding the essence of chemical bonds, the discovery of isotopes, and then the production of new radioactive elements that are absent in nature. A revolutionary shift also occurred in technology, primarily under the influence of the use of electricity in industry and transport. Radio was invented, aviation was born, cybernetics arose.
The scientific and technological revolution is a radical technological revolution in the development of the productive forces of society. Scientific and technological revolution is a concept that is considered in relation to the concept of "scientific and technological progress" (STP). “STP is an interdependent progressive movement of science and technology, the evolutionary development of all elements of the productive forces of social production on the basis of broad knowledge and development of the external forces of nature. This is an objective, constantly operating pattern of development of material production, the result of which is the improvement of technology, technology and organization of production, increasing its efficiency. Scientific and technological revolution is a narrower concept, one of the stages or forms of scientific and technical progress, when progress acquires an accelerated, spasmodic character. A direct manifestation of scientific and technological revolution is a radical restructuring of the technical and technological basis of production, its organization and management, which are carried out on the basis of the practical use of the fundamental discoveries of modern science" [Kondrashov V.A., Chekalov D.A., Koporulina V.N. The latest philosophical dictionary, Ed.3-e-Rostov n / D: Phoenix, pp. 412-413, 2008].The main technological content of the scientific and technological revolution is the transformation of science into the direct productive force of society:
systematic scientific knowledge is gradually becoming predominant in value, a factor in the growth of the welfare of society in comparison with its traditional sources such as natural resources and raw materials, labor and capital. Material and, to a large extent, spiritual production is gradually turning into the practical application of modern science: at the same time, science as a productive force is directly embodied in continuously improved technology and in the increasing professional knowledge of workers. Thus, the process of transformation of the productive forces of society presupposes an effective combination of the living knowledge of highly qualified workers with materialized knowledge, embodied in ever more perfect technology. The scientific and technological revolution is a qualitative new stage of scientific and technological progress.
1.2. The main directions of the scientific and technological revolution
In the past, revolutions in natural science and technology sometimes only coincided in time. Scientific and technological progress first began to converge in the XVI - XVIII centuries when manufacturing, the needs of navigation and trade required a theoretical and experimental solution of practical problems. This rapprochement took more concrete forms, starting from the end of the 18th century, in connection with the development of machine production, which was due to the invention of the steam engine by D. Watt. It was an industrial revolution, which was called the industrial revolution, which lasted almost 100 years. Starting in England, it then spread to other states of Europe, as well as North America, Russia and Japan. This industrial revolution decisively influenced the further process of improving technology. Science and technology began to mutually stimulate each other, actively influencing all aspects of society, radically transforming not only the material, but also the spiritual life of people.
From the end of the 19th century to the second half of the 20th century. The leader of natural science was physics. It penetrated deep into the microcosm and thus prepared the solution to many technical problems of our time. The successes of physics have advanced the entire complex of natural sciences: chemistry, astronomy, geology, biology. Humanity met the twentieth century with new modes of transport: airplanes, cars, huge steamships and ever faster steam locomotives, trams and telephones. Metro, electricity, radio and cinema have firmly entered the life of advanced countries.
In the first half of the 20th century, important natural scientific discoveries were made, which laid the fundamental foundations for the subsequent grandiose scientific and technological revolution. Atomic physics and molecular biology were among the natural sciences that largely determined the advent of scientific and technological revolution. An important milestone in the dramatic history of the atomic age was the experimental observation at the end of the 30s by the German physicists O. Hahn and F. Strassmann of the process of fission of uranium nuclei and the explanation of this phenomenon in the works of L. Meitneri and O. Frisch. It became clear that physicists managed to carry out a nuclear chain reaction that could lead to a nuclear explosion with the release of enormous energy. The first applications of atomic energy were by no means peaceful. The militarists were primarily interested in the possibility of creating on its basis a destructive weapon of colossal power. In the context of the outbreak of World War II, a group of US scientists led by A. Einstein began research and created the first atomic bomb. The long-term efforts of Soviet scientists in the field of nuclear research and their peaceful application led to the solution of a technical problem of great difficulty, which culminated in the construction of the world's first nuclear power plant (NPP). In 1954, an industrial-type nuclear power plant with a capacity of 5,000 kW was put into operation in the city of Obninsk near Moscow. Its launch was perceived as the beginning of the realization of the greatest possibilities opened up by the peaceful use of the atom.
The 20th century as a whole and its second half, which characterizes the scientific and technological revolution, brought tremendous achievements in the field of molecular biology. If in the first half of the 20th century progress in the field of the study of macromolecules was still relatively slow, then in the second half of the 20th century, i.e., in the era of scientific and technological revolution, these studies accelerated significantly, thanks to the technique of physical methods of analysis. By the mid-1950s, a scheme for the reproduction of living things (DNA-RNA-protein) had developed. Deciphering the genetic code and pathways for the biosynthesis of cellular proteins, studying the genetics of the biochemical properties of intracellular metabolic processes, etc. was the beginning of intensive research in chemistry and biology. It was found that nucleic acids, which are the carrier and transmitter of hereditary qualities and play a major role in the synthesis of cellular proteins, form a group of substances, the importance of which can hardly be overestimated. By the beginning of the 1960s, biologists had already developed a clear understanding of the basic processes of information transfer in the cell during protein synthesis. And here cybernetics played an enormous role, which made it possible to reveal the internal mechanism of self-government by life processes, from elementary ones up to those that take place in the brain of animals and humans.
Thus, achievements in the field of atomic physics and molecular biology, as well as the emergence of cybernetics, provided the natural scientific basis for the first stage of the scientific and technological revolution. ,
began in the middle of the 20th century and continued until about the middle of the 1970s. The main directions of this stage of the scientific and technological revolution were nuclear power engineering, electronic computers, rocket and space technology, satellite communications, and production automation. Human penetration into space is a natural step of world scientific and technical progress, prepared by the works of K.E. Tsiolkovsky, F.A. Zander, R. Oberth and others and other founders of astronautics and rocketry. In the first decade of the space age alone, 600 different spacecraft and ships were launched in the USSR and the USA. The physical sciences received new opportunities for the study of cosmic radiation, radiation and magnetic fields, unknown objects (quasers, radio galaxies, pulsars), the study of the Moon and other planets. The rocket and space industry has contributed to the emergence of new types of alloys, synthetic materials, devices, systems and assemblies, which are used not only in the interests of astronautics, but are also widely used on Earth in production. Weather forecasting is of paramount importance. Rapidly developing electronic - computer technology. The widespread use of computers significantly expands the possibilities of communication, the transfer of any amount of information. Automation significantly reduces the proportion of "manual" labor, frees from labor processes that are dangerous and harmful to human health, and improves working conditions and productivity. The growing demand for raw materials and materials is provided in the course of the scientific and technological revolution thanks to the unprecedented flourishing of chemistry. Hundreds of different materials are created every year thanks to new technologies for their manufacture.
In the second half of the 1970s, the second stage of the scientific and technological revolution began, which continues to this day. An important characteristic of the second stage of scientific and technological revolution was new technologies that did not exist in the middle of the 20th century. These include laser technology, biotechnology, microelectronics, the creation of "artificial intelligence", fiber optic communications, genetic engineering, space exploration, etc. An important characteristic of the second stage of the scientific and technological revolution was the unprecedented informatization of society based on personal computers years) and the Worldwide System of Public Electronic Networks (“Internet”). As a result, a person has access to much more information than ever before. The Internet ensures the dissemination of information to a virtually unlimited range of consumers, and they can easily communicate with each other. AT modern world each discovery is so significant, it makes such great changes in our ideas about the world, technology, technology, production, that people call our time either the era of cybernetics, or the era of space or the age of atomic energy, automation, etc. Thus, in the modern world, STD is the process of improving existing technologies and creating new ones in the following areas:
1) Reduction of energy intensity and resource intensity per unit of production. For example, new aircraft engines use less fuel per thousand miles, and new TVs are lighter and use less energy.
2) Reducing labor intensity or the number of "man hours" per unit of output. This is achieved in two ways: by improving the physical and chemical basis of the technology and by introducing production automation tools.
3) Increase in productivity or quantity of production per unit of time.
4) Increasing economic security, reducing the harmful impact on the environment and improving working conditions.
5) The emergence of new opportunities, the release of products with new properties.
- Features of NTR
1) This revolution coincides in time. It is characterized by a deep internal interconnection, mutual influence, and is a process of deep qualitative transformations in all the most important branches of science, technology and production, with the dominant role of science. In other words, the qualitative transformation of technology and production takes place on the basis of the latest achievements of science, the laws of nature discovered by it. Thus, in the past, revolutions in natural science and technology rarely coincided in time. Now they are merging into a single process of the scientific and technological revolution. In the conditions of scientific and technological revolution, a new relationship between science and technology is emerging. In the past, the already fully defined needs of technology entailed the advancement of theoretical problems, the solution of which was associated with the discovery of new laws of nature, the creation of new natural science theories. At present, scientific achievements are becoming a necessary prerequisite for the very possibility of the emergence of new branches of technology.
2) Another important feature of scientific and technological revolution is a qualitative change in the relationship between science and production, which is manifested in their convergence, interpenetration and even mutual transformation. This is most clearly manifested in three processes: the industrialization of science is taking place, the periods from the appearance of a scientific idea to its application in the national economy are rapidly shortening, and periodic meetings between science and production are being replaced by constant cooperation. Many laboratories and institutes are becoming, as it were, workshops of the enterprises themselves.
3) Scientific and technological revolution is accompanied and combined with a new social revolution, which leads to the formation of a post-industrial society. Profound and diverse social transformations are taking place in all spheres of society. Scientific and technological revolution entails a new professional and social division of labor, gives rise to new branches of activity, changes the ratio of various branches, the leading of which is the production of scientific knowledge and information in general, as well as their practical, technological and professional change.
4) Scientific and technological revolution is characterized by a transition from extensive to intensive growth of production and a sharp acceleration of economic development due to the fact that the development of fundamental science is ahead of the development of applied knowledge, and the improvement of new technology, in turn, is ahead of the growth of production, thereby contributing to its rapid modernization. Under these conditions, when “generations of machines” replace each other faster than generations of people, the requirements for the qualifications of workers and their ability to master new professions are significantly increasing.
At the present stage of its development, the scientific and technological revolution is characterized by the following main features:
1) The transformation of science into a direct productive force as a result of the merger of revolutions in science, technology and production, the strengthening of interaction between them and the reduction of the time from the birth of a new scientific idea to its production implementation.
2) A new stage in the social division of labor associated with the transformation of science into the leading sphere of economic and social activity, which is acquiring a mass character.
3) Qualitative transformation of all elements of the productive forces - the object of labor, the instruments of production and the worker himself; the increasing intensification of the entire production process due to its scientific organization and rationalization, the reduction of material consumption, capital intensity and labor intensity of products: the new knowledge acquired by society in a peculiar form “replaces” the costs of raw materials, equipment and labor, repeatedly paying back the costs of scientific research and technical development.
4) A change in the nature and content of labor, an increase in the role of creative elements in it; the transformation of the production process "... from a simple labor process into a scientific process ..." [Marx K. and Engels F., Soch., 2nd ed., vol. 46, part 2, p. 208].
5) The emergence on this basis of the material and technical prerequisites for overcoming the opposite and significant differences between
mental and physical labor, between town and countryside, between non-productive and industrial spheres.
6) Creation of new, potentially limitless energy sources and artificial materials with predetermined properties.
7) A huge increase in the social and economic significance of information activity as a means of ensuring scientific organization, control and management of social production; gigantic development of fundsmass communication.
8) the growth of the level of general and special education and culture of the working people; increase in free time.
9) An increase in the interaction of sciences, a comprehensive study of complex problems, the role of social sciences and ideological struggle.
10) A sharp acceleration of social progress, further internationalization of all human activity on a planetary scale, the emergence of so-called "environmental problems".
- The significance of the scientific and technological revolution, its consequences
Conclusion
In conclusion, it should be noted that the task is formulated very clearly: to teach young people to apply the entire arsenal of modern scientific methods to achieve the required results in a particular area, while easily adapting to changing conditions. In an address to the Federal Assembly, President Dmitry Medvedev noted that the country needed innovative technologies. This task can be solved only on the basis of a solid fundamental education. Laser technologies, biotechnologies, information technologies, technologies of modern materials cannot be mastered and put into practice without fundamental education. Unfortunately, at the end of the 20th century, the development of science, education in the country became much
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Mood now - Excellent
In my report, I would like to talk about the impact of the scientific and technological revolution on life on our planet. After all, everything that we have and what we use, people have achieved thanks to new ideas. The innovations of our century - from skyscrapers to artificial satellites - testify to the inexhaustible ingenuity of man.
There were seven wonders of the world in the ancient world. In the modern world, there are immeasurably more of them. Unlike the wondrous creations of antiquity, which - except for the Egyptian pyramids - have largely turned to dust, the wonders of our century will probably continue to exist as long as mankind lives.
The builders of classical antiquity had only natural materials, such as stone and wood, and their skillful hands. Modern wonders such as the Golden Gate Bridge and the Empire State Building would not have been possible without high-strength steel. The Romans got cement, but they couldn't produce enough to build the Grand Coulee Dam.
The Industrial Revolution was brought about by the power of steam, which multiplied the strength of human muscles many times over. Electronics has spawned a second revolution, the consequences of which are likely to be just as global. News transmitted via satellites travels at the speed of light, making the world one. Computers allow us to process information at a speed unimaginable 50 years ago.
The miracles of the present time also give rise to deep problems. Progress teaches the necessary caution: any invention can be used both for good and for evil. Yet the accomplishments of the modern world are awe-inspiring. They surpassed poets and playwrights, they transformed the world.
I took the material from the book "Russia and the World" as the basis for my essay, but since the topic is not fully disclosed in this book, I took more specific information from other books. I got information about the specific achievements of the scientific and technological revolution from the encyclopedia "When, where, how why did this happen". Also, this book was useful to me for drawing up the outline of the abstract, the subheadings of the sections of which I took from this book. I used the material of the book "The Forest for the Trees" to open the section of the essay "Medicine".
SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL REVOLUTION
The concept of scientific and technological revolution
The concept of "progress" in combination with the epithets "scientific", "social", etc. It is no coincidence that it has become one of the most used when it comes to the history of the 20th century. Along with turning political events, the past century was marked by a huge advance in the spheres of human knowledge, material production and culture, changes in Everyday life of people. In the second half of the century, this process accelerated significantly. In the 50s. there was a scientific and technical, scientific and technological revolution, which is characterized by close interaction between science and technology, the rapid introduction of scientific achievements in various fields of activity, the use of new materials and technologies, and production automation. In the 70s. the information revolution unfolded, which contributed to the transformation of the industrial society into a post-industrial or information society.
2. Achievements of scientific and technological revolution
In the field of atomic physics
Let us name the most important achievements of scientific and technological progress of the 20th century. In the field of atomic physics, an actual scientific and practical problem as far back as the 40s. was the production and use of atomic energy. In 1942, in the USA, a group of scientists led by E. Fermi created the first uranium reactor. The atomic fuel obtained in it was used to create atomic weapons (two of the three atomic bombs created at that time were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki). In 1946, an atomic reactor was created in the USSR (I.V. Kurchatov supervised the work), in 1949 the first test of Soviet atomic weapons took place. After the war, the question arose of the peaceful use of atomic energy. In 1954, the world's first power plant was built in the USSR, and in 1957, the first nuclear icebreaker "Lenin" was launched. one
In medecine
The scientific and technological revolution had a great influence on medicine. When South African surgeon Christian Barnard performed the first human heart transplant in 1967, many were concerned about the moral aspect of the operation.
Today, hundreds of people live normally with someone else's heart.
1 Russia and the world in the 20th century p. 214
Successful transplants are made not only of the heart, but also of the kidneys, liver, and lungs. Artificial "spare parts" for humans have been created, and artificial joints have become commonplace. Surgeons use a laser as a scalpel and miniature television cameras during operations. one
Thanks to the discovery of the structure of DNA, it became clear how many life forms arose. The main building blocks of a living organism are proteins, which are formed inside cells by combining 20 different amino acids in different sequences. There are thousands of possible
variants of their compounds, giving thousands of different proteins. But, how and what determines a particular amino acid sequence and protein composition?
By 1950, it was already established that the DNA molecule (first discovered by Friedrich Miescher in 1969 as part of the cell nucleus) is the material that controls the production of proteins and the hereditary traits of all living things. The structure of DNA discovered by Watson and Crick suggested how hereditary information is transmitted during cell division and how DNA determines the structure of the body's proteins.
Unraveling the genetic code explained the origins of hereditary diseases. A single mistake in the order of the bases in DNA can be enough to interrupt the process of forming a normal protein. The modern level of genetics gives a chance to correct the mistakes that cause genetic diseases. Gene therapy identifies a defective gene and offers an arsenal of tools to fix it. 2
2 Collection "Forest for Trees" p. 15
Having joined the scientific and technological revolution, Japanese scientists took up biotechnology, microelectronics with robotics, computer science, the creation of new materials, and nuclear energy. Computer software, watchmaking, photographic film, industrial electronics, and soda ash firms have teamed up to assemble a device that can decipher DNA, the genetic material that determines the development of all living organisms. The development of the biotechnology industry depends on the knowledge of genetic information, and understanding the secrets of human DNA opens the way to the successful treatment of all diseases, including those that are now considered fatal.
DNA research requires numerous and repetitive laboratory experiments. The company Seiko, known for its watches, has proposed using robots to move the particles of genetic material, which it usually uses in the high-precision assembly of watch movements. Fuji Film Company provided a special jelly-like emulsion. It helps to separate genes into different elements. The electronics and electrical engineering firm Hitati has supplied laboratories with computers that translate the "picture code" of DNA elements into data suitable for reading by electronic computers.
In the field of automotive and aircraft manufacturing
The scientific and technical thought is especially brightly manifested in the automotive and aircraft industries. Concorde, the first supersonic airliner in the world, is the result of fourteen years of creative research and testing by British and French designers. It flies at more than twice the speed of sound. Regular flights began in 1976. The plane travels from London to New York in 3 hours and 20 minutes.
When designing this machine, many problems had to be solved. For example, the complex bend of a delta wing
It was designed to generate lift at low speeds and to have low drag at high speeds. By the end of the 60s, when the experimental machines were already taking off, quarrels began about the cost of the Concorde, its
viability and environmental impact. The noise effect during the transition of the sound barrier did not allow flying at maximum speed. At low speed, the aircraft were not economically viable: at a speed of 800 km per hour, the aircraft consumed 8 times more fuel than conventional airliners. In total, only 14 Concorde aircraft were built. one
A ceramic motor and a plastic body are far from the only new signs of a car of the near future. Is it possible to imagine the world no metal or plastic? Before the scientific and technological revolution, it was impossible to imagine such a world. Now, at the Kete Ceramics plant in the city of Kagoshima, on the island of Kyushu, a future is being created in which, as the company's engineers say, there is no need for either metal or plastics. car motor tomorrow made from ceramic. Now there are motors that can withstand temperatures up to 700-800 degrees, and they need water and air cooling, and the heat of 1200 degrees is not dangerous for a ceramic motor. 2
1 Encyclopedia "When, where, how and why it happened" p. 369
2 Collection "Forest for Trees" p. 18
In the field of chemistry
There is no area where the achievements of the scientific and technological revolution would not be used. In the 1920s and 1930s, many items began to be made from plastic, such as slide viewers, powder boxes, hairpins, and hairpins. Polyethylene
film is used in construction.
Plastic is an example of the use of synthetics instead of natural raw materials. Lightweight, moldable, strong, stable
resistance to chemicals and high temperature, good insulating material, it is used for the production of various
products: from paints and adhesives to plastic packaging materials. In 1907, the first plastic, Bakelite, was created in America by Leo Baekeland. At first it was produced on the basis of natural raw materials: celluloid was made from cellulose. Bakelite was obtained in the laboratory as a result of the synthesis of phenol-formaldehyde resin, which, when heated under pressure, formed a solid mass. Then came polymers, which were made from larger molecules. In 1935, nylon was created, which is not subject to decay or bacteria. one
computer revolution
important integral part development of science and technology in the period under review was the "computer revolution". The first electronic computers (computers) were created in the early 40s. Work on them was carried out in parallel by German, American, British specialists, the greatest successes were
1 Encyclopedia "When, where, how and why it happened" p. 368
achieved in the USA. The first computers occupied an entire room, and it took considerable time to set them up. The first computers used vacuum tubes. Machines performed calculations and performed logical operations. The British computer "Colossus", made in the 40s in England and the USA, helped decipher the code of the German Enigma cipher machine during
time of World War II.
In the early 70s. microprocessors appeared, and after
them - personal computers. It was already a real revolution. The functions of computers have also expanded, which
are no longer used only for processing and storing information, but also for sharing it, designing, teaching, etc. At present, the European Organization for Nuclear Research uses a supercomputer, a giant computer with a memory of 8 million bits and 128 million words, to store and process information. In the 90s. global computer networks began to be created, which received an unusually rapid spread. Thus, in 1993 over 2 million computers were connected to the Internet in 60 countries. and a year later, the number of users of this network reached 25 million people.
TV era
Second half of the twentieth century. often referred to as the "age of television". It was invented before World War II. In 1897, the German physicist Karl Braun invented cathode ray tubes. This was the impetus for the emergence of a means of transmitting visible images using radio waves. However, the Russian scientist Boris Rosing discovered in 1907 that light transmitted through a tube to a screen could be used to produce a picture. In 1908, Scottish electrical engineer Campbell Swinton proposed the use of a cathode ray tube for both image acquisition and transmission.
The honor of the first public demonstration of the possibilities
television belongs to another Scot - John Loggia Baird. He worked on a mechanical scanning system and in 1927 successfully demonstrated it to members of the Royal
institute. Baird transmitted the first television images using BBC transmitters in 1929, and his television receivers appeared on the market a year later. one
France, Russia and the Netherlands began television broadcasting in the 1930s, but it was more experimental than regular. America was lagging behind for two reasons: firstly, there were disputes over the patent, and secondly, they were waiting for the right moment to start transmissions. The war suspended the development of a new type of technology. But since the 1950s Television has become part of everyday life. Currently, in developed countries, television sets are available in 98% of homes.
Space exploration
In the second half of the 20th century, human space exploration began. The leadership in this industry belonged to Soviet scientists and designers headed by S.P. Korolev. In 1961, the flight of the first cosmonaut Yu. A. Gagarin took place. In 1969, American astronauts N. Armstrong and E. Aldrin landed on the moon. Since the 1970s, Soviet orbital stations have been operating in space. By the beginning of the 1980s, the USSR and the USA had launched more than 2,000 artificial satellites, put their own satellites into orbit
1 Encyclopedia "When, where, how and why it happened" p.388
also India, China, Japan. one
The conquest of space has revolutionized the world
communication systems. These devices are used to transmit radio and
television signals, observation of the earth's surface, weather,
spy, discover pollution areas and mineral resources. In order to evaluate the significance of the
events, it is necessary to imagine that there are achievements behind them
many other sciences - aeronautics, astrophysics, atomic physics, quantum electronics, biology, medicine, etc.
Previously, satellites were used only for scientific research, but other areas of their application were soon found. The first commercial communications satellite, Telstar, transmitted a television picture from America to Europe in July 1962. Today, satellites are in orbit 36,000 km above the Earth's surface. 2
3. Problems of scientific and technological revolution
Technological progress in the second half of the XX century. had not only positive aspects, it generated a significant number of problems. One of them was. that “a machine replaces a person” (already at the beginning of the introduction of computers, it was estimated that one computer replaces the labor of 35 people). But what about those who lost their jobs because they were replaced by a car? How to treat the opinion that a machine can teach everything better than a teacher, what about us successfully completes human communication? Why have friends when you can play with the computer? These are questions that people of different ages and occupations are arguing about to this day. Behind them are real contradictions in the spheres of social relations,
culture, spiritual life, emerging information society.
A number of serious global problems are connected with the consequences of scientific and technical progress for ecology and the human environment. Already in the 60s and 70s. it became clear that nature, resources
of our planet are not an inexhaustible pantry, and reckless technocratism leads to irreversible environmental losses and catastrophes. One of the tragic events that showed the danger of technological failures of modern technology was an accident at
Chernobyl nuclear power plant (April 1986), as a result of which millions of people turned out to be outside of radioactive contamination. The problems of preserving forests and fertile lands, purity of water and air are relevant today on all continents of the Earth.
III Final part
In my report, I touched on only some of the achievements of the scientific and technological revolution. Among them: in the field of atomic physics - the use of atomic energy, in medicine - the discovery of the structure of DNA, in the automotive industry - the use of new materials, in the field of chemistry - the creation and use of plastics, in addition, the creation of television, computers and achievements in the space industry. It is simply impossible to tell about everyone.
For us, NTR is a familiar part of everyday life. We cannot imagine our life without cars, various household appliances. In the modern world, people are accustomed to the fact that improved types of technology, new materials, new research methods appear almost daily. The population of the planet also feels all the negative aspects of the scientific and technological revolution. But the scientific and technological revolution is, first of all, high productivity, profitability, competitiveness, these are the main factors. driving force progress that ultimately leads our society to a higher standard of living.
Scientific and technical translation
Currently, the theory of technical translation as an independent scientific discipline, and with it the translation practice is largely transformed into a broader, global discipline - the theory of intercultural communication. as a special type of speech activity, it is one of the main and generally accepted means of intercultural communication, since very often it is the translator who becomes an intermediary in the exchange of scientific information. One of the most important realities of translation is the situation of the relativity of the result of the translation process, the solution of the problem of equivalence in relation to each specific text. There are several views on this problem. Thus, the concept of formal correspondence [L.K.Latyshev:11.] is formulated as follows: everything that can be expressed verbally is transmitted. Untranslatable and difficult to translate elements are transformed, only those elements of the source text that cannot be conveyed at all are omitted. The authors of the concept of normative content compliance argue that the translator must follow two requirements: to convey all the essential elements of the content of the source text and to comply with the norms of the target language. In this case, equivalence is interpreted as an equilibrium ratio of the completeness of information transfer and the norms of the target language. The authors of the concept of an adequate (full) translation consider the translation and the exact retelling of the text to be completely different types activities. They believe that when translating one should strive for an exhaustive transfer of the semantic content of the text, and to ensure that the process of transmitting information takes place by the same (equivalent) means as in the original text. In relation to the practice of translation scientific texts the concept of equivalence is relevant and quite understandable and is most likely based on the concept of L.K. Latyshev, who considers in his work the specifics of translating texts of various styles. The most difficult problem associated with the translation of scientific texts is the problem of transferring the original content using a different terminological system. We believe that the terminological system of the target language is fundamentally unique, as well as the lexical system as a whole. This is due to the following reasons: the term system is part of the lexical system of the national language, therefore, it reflects to some extent its national and cultural specificity. the terminological system reflects the subject-conceptual area of knowledge in a particular disciplinary area, which may also differ in different cultures; terminological system is always dynamic, it is constantly changing both in systemic relations between units and in relation to the content plan of a separate terminological unit. These factors often lead to the fact that the terms are considered as non-equivalent or partially equivalent units. The concept of non-equivalence at the lexical level is considered and described, its causes are: 1) the absence of an object or phenomenon in the life of the people; 2) the absence of an identical concept; 3) difference in lexical and stylistic characteristics. With regard to terminology, the first two reasons are the most frequent, in particular the absence of an identical concept. As an example, we can cite attempts to compare Russian and English legal terminology, which revealed a fundamental discrepancy lexical meanings terms that are functionally identical and often similar in sound shell, which is explained by the fundamentally different structure of the legal system itself in Russia, Great Britain and the USA. We can identify the same fundamental differences in almost any humanitarian science that studies and describes society, the realities of its life and, as a result, is inextricably linked with the national and cultural specifics of these realities. Meanwhile, most terminological units are created on the basis of international vocabulary and international morphemes, and because of this, the illusion of terminological identity can often arise, which in fact does not exist, or an attempt to recreate the semantic structure of a term based on the meaning of its constituent morphemes. Such situations often lead to inaccuracies or even serious translation errors. It follows from what has been said pressing need comparative studies of terminological systems both in terms of the semantic description of their meanings, and in terms of studying the methods of nomination that are productive in one or another knowledge system, as well as the need to develop methods for translating non-equivalent terms. In translation practice, transliteration and transcription are often used to translate many terminological units. This method of translation can be regarded as acceptable, provided that an explanatory translation follows, i.e. definition of this concept. At the same time, it should be mentioned that this method, on the one hand, leads to the internationalization of terminological systems, on the other hand, the consequence of this technique may be unreasonable borrowing, which leads to shifts in the terminological system as a whole. Therefore, it is necessary to develop specific translation procedures in the transfer of terminological units of another language. Conclusions: Communication in the field of science is one of the most important areas of information exchange in the world community in connection with scientific and technological progress. Unlike other areas of communication, written communication is of the utmost importance. When implementing written communication, the grammatical and stylistic features of scientific and technical texts are determined by the goals of communication, on the basis of which the strategies used by the authors when writing scientific and technical texts are developed: the strategy of completeness, the strategy of generalization, the strategy of abstractization, the strategy of objectivity, the strategy of politeness, the strategy of irony, the strategy of social prestige. The most important reasons that impede communication processes in the scientific field are linguistic problems - language and speech. Thus, the problem of translating scientific and technical literature as a tool for intercultural communication becomes of paramount importance. treminosystems of the target language. The difference between the terminological systems of FL and TL is the cause of the greatest difficulties. This implies the need to study treminosystems and develop methods for translating partially equivalent and non-equivalent vocabulary.
The concept of scientific and technological revolution
scientific and technological revolution- this is a qualitative revolution in the productive forces of mankind, based on the transformation of science into the direct productive force of society.
Scientific and technical revolution
I scientific and technological revolution
II scientific and technological revolution
III scientific and technological revolution
XVIII - XIX centuries
the end XIX - Start XX centuries
middle XX centuries
The transition from manual labor to large-scale machine production, the use of steam energy.
The use of electricity, the emergence of new sectors of the economy: mechanical engineering, aircraft construction, aluminum production, etc.
The use of atomic energy, the development of electronics, space technology.
Versatility, inclusiveness
- Scientific and technological revolution transforms all industries and spheres, the nature of work, life, culture, people's psychology
- Scientific and technological revolution has affected all countries of the world and all geographic shells of the Earth, and
- also outer space.
Acceleration of scientific and technological transformation
Intellectualization of labor resources
The scientific and technological revolution has sharply increased the requirements for the level of qualification of labor resources. It led to the fact that in all spheres of human activity the share of mental labor increased.
Military technical revolution
- Scientific and technological revolution was born during the Second World War as a military-technical revolution: its beginning was heralded by the explosion of the atomic bomb in Hiroshima in 1945.
- Throughout the Cold War, scientific and technological revolution was focused on the use of the latest achievements of scientific and technical thought for military purposes. This orientation continues to this day.
Components of scientific and technological revolution
The science (development of science-intensive production)
Technique and technology
Production
Control (cybernetics, managers)
The science
In the era of scientific and technological revolution has become a very complex body of knowledge
About 10 million people are involved in science, that is, more than 9-10 scientists who have ever lived on Earth - our contemporaries.
Example: The United States occupies the first place in the world in terms of the absolute number of scientists and engineers, followed by Japan and the countries of Western Europe, where spending on science accounts for 23% of GDP. Despite a significant decline in the number of scientists in the 1990s, Russia is still among the leaders. At the beginning of the XXI century. China also entered. And in most developing countries, spending on science does not exceed 0.5% on average.
Science intensity is measured by the level (share) of the cost of research and development in the total cost of producing a particular product.
The ties between science and production have increased, which is becoming knowledge-intensive
There are very large differences between economically developed and developing countries in the connection between science and production.
Technique and technology
Embodies scientific knowledge and discoveries
Technical functions and technologies
labor saving
resource saving
Example: In Great Britain and Italy, 2/3 of steel is obtained from scrap metal; in the FRG and Great Britain, more than 2/3 of paper is obtained from waste paper; in the USA and Japan, most of the aluminum is recycled.
environmental
Example:. The Federal Republic of Germany and the USA stand out in particular for the production of environmental protection equipment and the introduction of environmental technology, while the FRG ranks first in the export of such equipment.
Informational
Technique and technology
Ways of development
Evolutionary
Revolutionary
It consists in improving the already known equipment and technology in increasing the power (productivity) of machinery and equipment, in increasing the carrying capacity of vehicles.
It consists in the transition to a fundamentally new technique and technology.
Example: In mechanical engineering this is a transition from mechanical methods of metal processing to non-mechanical ones - electrochemical, plasma, laser, radiation, ultrasonic, vacuum, etc. metallurgy is the use of new methods for producing cast iron, steel and rolled products, in agriculture plowless farming, in the field of communications - radio relay, fiberglass communications, telexes, telefaxes, e-mail, paging and cellular communications, etc.
Example: B early 50s. the largest sea tanker contained 50 thousand tons of oil. In the 60s. appeared supertankers with a carrying capacity of 100, 200, 300, and in 70x p. 400, 500, 550 thousand tons.
Production: directions of development
1. Electronization
H saturation of all areas of human activity with electronic computers. Electronization (computerization) changes the technology of many production processes. It is penetrating deeper and deeper into education, health care and the life of people, covering not only stationary, but also moving means.
2. Integrated automation
Japan is ahead of all countries in the world not only in terms of the number of industrial robots (40% of the world park), but also in terms of their production equipment. For every 10,000 manufacturing workers, there are 270 robots, compared to 50 in the US.
Along with industry, robots are now very widely used in other areas of activity.
It is based on energy saving, improvement of the structure of the fuel and energy balance, wider use of new energy sources.
The emergence of fundamentally new composite, semiconductor, ceramic materials, optical fiber, as well as such "metals of the twentieth century" as beryllium, lithium, titanium (the number one metal in the aerospace industry)
The main areas of application of biotechnology: increasing the productivity of agricultural production, expanding the range of food products, increasing energy resources, environmental protection by biotechnological methods.
The development of astronautics has led to the emergence of another new science-intensive branch of the aerospace industry. It is associated with the emergence of many new machines, devices, alloys, some of them then find application in non-space industries.
3. Restructuring of the energy sector
4. Production of new materials
5. Application of biotechnology
5. Cosmization
Control
Cybernetics special science of management
The production of various information technology has already become one of the newest science-intensive industries, and its maintenance has brought to life new specialties of programmers, operators, etc.
The volume of scientific knowledge and the number of sources of information are growing very rapidly. The transition from ordinary (paper) to machine information.
Formation of a global information space
Example: In the US, the Internet is already used by 70% of all residents. In this respect, they significantly outperform Western Europe and Japan. The United States also ranked first in the world in the development of cellular telephone communications, but lost it to China.
- Why is the revolutionary path of development of production in the era of scientific and technological revolution the main one?
- Why did the electric power industry, mechanical engineering and the chemical industry become the sectors of the "avant-garde trio" in the era of scientific and technological revolution?
- Give a definition of the concepts: scientific and technological revolution, scientific and technological progress, knowledge intensity, cybernetics?
The concept of the scientific and technological revolution
The development of human civilization is associated with scientific and technological progress. Against the background of this progress, separate periods of rapid and profound changes in the productive forces are distinguished, during which a qualitative revolution takes place in these forces. It is based on the transformation of science into the direct productive force of society. Such periods are called scientific and technological revolutions (NTR). The beginning of modern scientific and technological revolution is usually attributed to the middle of the 20th century.
Character traits and components of the scientific and technological revolution
Usually there are four main features of modern scientific and technological revolution. Firstly, it is universality, since this revolution covers almost all sectors of the national economy and affects all spheres of human activity. Such concepts as a computer, a spaceship, a jet aircraft, a nuclear power plant, a television, etc. are associated with modern scientific and technological revolution. The second feature of scientific and technological revolution is the rapid development of science and technology. The distance from a fundamental discovery to its application in practice has been greatly reduced. From the moment the principle of photography was discovered to the first photograph, 102 years passed, and for the laser this period was reduced to five years. The third feature of the scientific and technological revolution is the change in the role of man in the production process. In the process of scientific and technological revolution, the requirements for the level of qualification of labor resources are increasing. Under these conditions, the share of mental labor increases. The fourth feature of the modern scientific and technological revolution is that it originated during the Second World War as a military-technical revolution and continued to remain so throughout the entire post-war period.
Modern scientific and technological revolution is a complex system that includes four interacting parts:
- science;
- technique and technology;
- production;
- control.
Science in the era of scientific and technological revolution is a very complex set of knowledge. This is a vast area of human activity, in which 5.5 million people are employed worldwide. The connections of science with production, which is becoming more and more knowledge-intensive, have especially increased, that is, with an increase in the level (share) of expenditures on scientific research in the production of a particular product. In economically developed countries, spending on science usually amounts to 2-3% of the gross domestic product (GDP), while in developing countries it is a fraction of a percent.
Technique and technology
In the conditions of scientific and technological revolution, the development of technology and technology occurs in two ways - evolutionary and revolutionary. The evolutionary path consists in the constant improvement of equipment and technology, as well as in increasing the power (productivity) of machines and equipment, in increasing the carrying capacity of vehicles, etc. Yes, in the early 1950s. the largest sea tanker contained 50 thousand tons of oil. In the 70s. began to produce supertankers with a carrying capacity of 500 thousand tons or more.
The revolutionary path is the main direction in the development of engineering and technology in the era of scientific and technological revolution. This path consists in the transition to a fundamentally new technique and technology. One of the expressions this path finds in the production of electronic equipment. It is no coincidence that the “second wave” of scientific and technological revolution, which began in the 1970s, is often called the “microelectronic revolution”. Highly great importance also has a transition to the latest technologies.
Production
Along with the traditional ways of improving production (mechanization, chemicalization, electrification), latest destinations production, which can be divided into six main areas:
- electronization, that is, the saturation of all spheres of activity with electronic computers;
- integrated automation or the introduction of robotics and the creation of flexible production systems, automatic factories;
- restructuring of the energy economy based on energy saving, improvement of the structure of the fuel and energy balance, use of new energy sources;
- production of fundamentally new materials such as composite, semiconductor, ceramic materials, optical fiber, beryllium, lithium, titanium, etc.;
- accelerated development of biotechnology;
- cosmization and the emergence of the aerospace industry, which contributed to the emergence of new machines, instruments, alloys, etc.
Control
Modern stage Scientific and technological revolution is characterized by new requirements for management. During the period of information explosion that modern humanity is experiencing, the transition from ordinary (paper) to machine (computer) information has begun. The release of various information technology has become one of the newest high-tech industries. In this situation, great importance should be given to cybernetics - the science of managing and processing information.
