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What Kant calls philosophy. Philosophy of Kant

German Immanuel Kant

German philosopher, father of the German classical philosophy

short biography

The largest German scientist, philosopher, founder of German classical philosophy, a man whose works had a huge impact on the development philosophical thought XVIII and subsequent centuries.

In 1724, on April 22, Immanuel was born in Prussian Konigsberg. His whole biography will be connected with this city; if Kant left its limits, then for a short distance and not for long. The future great philosopher was born into a poor, large family; his father was a simple craftsman. Immanuel's talent was noticed by the doctor of theology Franz Schulz and helped him become a student at the prestigious Friedrichs Collegium gymnasium.

In 1740, Immanuel Kant became a student at the Albertina University of Koenigsberg, but the death of his father prevented him from completely unlearning. For 10 years, Kant, providing financial support for his family, has been working as a home teacher in different families, leaving his native Koenigsberg. Difficult everyday circumstances do not prevent him from engaging in scientific activities. So, in 1747-1750. Kant's attention was focused on his own cosmogonic theory of the origin of the solar system from the original nebula, the relevance of which has not been lost to this day.

In 1755 he returned to Konigsberg. Kant finally managed not only to complete his university education, but also, having defended several dissertations, to receive a doctorate degree and the right to engage in teaching activities as an assistant professor and professor. Within the walls of his alma mater, he worked for four decades. Until 1770, Kant worked as an extraordinary associate professor, after that he was an ordinary professor in the department of logic and metaphysics. Philosophical, physical, mathematical and other disciplines Immanuel Kant taught students until 1796.

The year 1770 became a frontier and in its scientific biography: he divides his work into so-called. subcritical and critical periods. In the second, a number of fundamental works were written, which not only enjoyed great success, but also allowed Kant to enter the circle of outstanding thinkers of the century. The field of epistemology includes his work Critique of Pure Reason (1781), ethics - Critique of Practical Reason (1788). In 1790, the essay "Critique of the Faculty of Judgment" touching on issues of aesthetics was published. Kant's worldview as a philosopher was formed to a certain extent thanks to the study of the writings of Hume and a number of other thinkers.

In turn, the influence of the works of Immanuel Kant himself on the subsequent development of philosophical thought is difficult to overestimate. German classical philosophy, of which he was the founder, later included major philosophical systems developed by Fichte, Schelling, Hegel. The romantic movement experienced the impact of Kant's teachings. Schopenhauer's philosophy also shows the influence of his ideas. In the second half of the XIX century. “neo-Kantianism” was very relevant; in the 20th century, Kant’s philosophical heritage influenced, in particular, existentialism, the phenomenological school, etc.

In 1796, Immanuel Kant stopped lecturing, in 1801 he retired from the university, but did not stop his scientific activity until 1803. The thinker could never boast of iron health and found a way out in a clear daily routine, strict adherence to his own system, good habits, which surprised even pedantic Germans. Kant never connected his life with any of the women, although he had nothing against the fair sex. Regularity and accuracy helped him live longer than many of his peers. He died in his native Konigsberg on February 12, 1804; they buried him in the professorial crypt of the city cathedral.

Biography from Wikipedia

Born into a poor family of a saddle maker. Immanuel had been in poor health since childhood. His mother tried to give her son the highest quality education. She encouraged curiosity and fantasy in her son. Until the end of his life, Kant remembered his mother with great love and gratitude. The father instilled in his son a love of work. Under the care of the doctor of theology F. A. Schulz, who noticed talent in him, he graduated from the prestigious Friedrichs-Collegium gymnasium (de: Collegium Fridericianum), and then in 1740 he entered the University of Königsberg. There were 4 faculties - theological, legal, medical and philosophical. It is not known exactly which faculty Kant chose. Information about this has not been preserved. Biographers differ in their assumptions. Kant's interest in philosophy was awakened by Professor Martin Knutzen. Knutzen was a pietist and Wolfian, fascinated by English natural history. It was he who inspired Kant to write a work on physics.

Kant began this work in his fourth year of study. This work progressed slowly. The young Kant had little knowledge and skills. He was poor. His mother had died by then, and his father could barely make ends meet. Kant worked part-time with lessons; in addition, rich classmates tried to help him. Pastor Schultz and a maternal relative, Uncle Richter, also helped him. There is evidence that it was Richter who took on most of the costs of publishing Kant's debut work, Thoughts on the True Evaluation of Living Forces. Kant wrote it for 3 years and printed it for 4 years. The work was fully printed only in 1749. Kant's work has elicited various responses; there was a lot of criticism among them.

Due to the death of his father, he fails to complete his studies and, in order to feed his family, he becomes a home teacher in Yudshen (now Veselovka) for 10 years. It was at this time, in the years 1747-1755, that he developed and published his cosmogonic hypothesis of the origin of the solar system from the original nebula.

In 1755, Kant defended his dissertation and received a doctorate, which gives him the right to teach at the university. For him, forty years of teaching began.

During the Seven Years' War from 1758 to 1762, Koenigsberg was under the jurisdiction of the Russian government, which was reflected in the business correspondence of the philosopher. In particular, in 1758 he addressed an application for the position of an ordinary professor to Empress Elizabeth Petrovna. Unfortunately, the letter never reached her, but was lost in the governor's office. The issue of the department was resolved in favor of another applicant - on the grounds that he was older both in years and in teaching experience.

The period of domination of the Russian Empire over East Prussia was the least productive in Kant's work: for all the years, only a few essays on earthquakes came out from the philosopher's pen, but immediately after its completion, Kant published a whole series of works.

During several years of the stay of the Russian troops in Koenigsberg, Kant kept several young nobles in his apartment as boarders and met many Russian officers, among whom there were many thinking people. One of the officers' circles suggested that the philosopher give lectures on physics and physical geography (Immanuel Kant, after being refused, was very intensively engaged in private lessons: he even taught fortification and pyrotechnics).

Kant's natural-science and philosophical researches are supplemented by "political science" opuses; so, in the treatise "Towards Eternal Peace", he first prescribed cultural and philosophical foundations the future unification of Europe into a family of enlightened peoples.

Since 1770, it has been customary to count the "critical" period in Kant's work. This year, at the age of 46, he was appointed professor of logic and metaphysics at Königsberg University, where until 1797 he taught an extensive cycle of disciplines - philosophical, mathematical, physical.

The plan long conceived as to how the field of pure philosophy was to be cultivated consisted of three tasks:

what can i know? (metaphysics);
what should I do? (morality);
what can I hope for? (religion);

finally, this was to be followed by the fourth task - what is a man? (anthropology, on which I have been lecturing for more than twenty years).

During this period, Kant wrote fundamental philosophical works that brought the scientist a reputation as one of the outstanding thinkers of the 18th century and had a huge impact on the further development of world philosophical thought:

"Critique of Pure Reason" (1781) - epistemology (epistemology)
"Critique of Practical Reason" (1788) - ethics
"Critique of the Faculty of Judgment" (1790) - aesthetics

Being in poor health, Kant subjected his life to a harsh regimen, which allowed him to outlive all his friends. His accuracy in following the routine became a byword even among punctual Germans and gave rise to many sayings and anecdotes. He was not married. He said that when he wanted to have a wife, he could not support her, and when he already could, he did not want to. However, he was not a misogynist either, he willingly talked with women, he was a pleasant secular conversationalist. In his old age he was cared for by one of his sisters.

There is an opinion that Kant sometimes showed anti-Semite phobia.

Kant wrote: “Sapere aude! Have the courage to use your own mind! - this is ... the motto of the Enlightenment.

Kant was buried at the eastern corner of the north side Cathedral Königsberg in the professorial crypt, a chapel was erected over his grave. In 1924, on the 200th anniversary of Kant, the chapel was replaced with a new structure, in the form of an open columned hall, strikingly different in style from the cathedral itself.

Stages of scientific activity

Kant went through two stages in his philosophical development: "pre-critical" and "critical". (These concepts are defined by the philosopher's Critique of Pure Reason, 1781; Critique of Practical Reason, 1788; Critique of Judgment, 1790).

Stage I (until 1770) - Kant developed the questions that had been posed by previous philosophical thought. In addition, during this period the philosopher was naturally engaged in scientific problems:

developed a cosmogonic hypothesis of the origin of the solar system from a giant primordial gaseous nebula ("Universal natural history and the theory of the sky, 1755);
outlined the idea of a genealogical classification of the animal world, that is, the distribution of various classes of animals in the order of their possible origin;
put forward the idea of the natural origin of human races;
studied the role of ebbs and flows on our planet.

Stage II (begins in 1770 or 1780s) - deals with issues of epistemology (the process of cognition), reflects on the metaphysical (general philosophical) problems of being, cognition, man, morality, state and law, aesthetics.

Philosophy

Epistemology

Kant rejected the dogmatic method of cognition and believed that instead it should be based on the method of critical philosophizing, the essence of which lies in the study of the mind itself, the boundaries that a person can reach with the mind, and the study of individual ways of human cognition.

Kant's main philosophical work is the Critique of Pure Reason. The original problem for Kant is the question "How is pure knowledge possible?". First of all, this concerns the possibility of pure mathematics and pure natural science ("pure" means "non-empirical", a priori, or inexperienced). Kant formulated this question in terms of a distinction between analytical and synthetic judgments - "How are synthetic judgments a priori possible?" By "synthetic" judgments, Kant understood judgments with an increment of content in comparison with the content of the concepts included in the judgment. Kant distinguished these judgments from analytical judgments that reveal the meaning of concepts. Analytic and synthetic judgments differ in whether the content of the judgment predicate follows from the content of its subject (such are analytic judgments) or, conversely, is added to it "from outside" (such are synthetic judgments). The term "a priori" means "out of experience", as opposed to the term "a posteriori" - "from experience".

Analytic judgments are always a priori: experience is not needed for them, so there are no a posteriori analytic judgments. Accordingly, experimental (a posteriori) judgments are always synthetic, since their predicates draw content from experience that was not in the subject of the judgment. Concerning a priori synthetic judgments, then, according to Kant, they are part of mathematics and natural science. Due to their a priori nature, these judgments contain universal and necessary knowledge, that is, such that it is impossible to extract from experience; thanks to syntheticity, such judgments give an increase in knowledge.

Kant, following Hume, agrees that if our knowledge begins with experience, then its connection - universality and necessity - is not from it. However, if Hume draws a skeptical conclusion from this that the connection of experience is just a habit, then Kant refers this connection to the necessary a priori activity of the mind (in the broad sense). The revelation of this activity of the mind in relation to experience, Kant calls transcendental research. “I call transcendental ... knowledge that deals not so much with objects as with the types of our knowledge of objects ...”, writes Kant.

Kant did not share the boundless faith in the powers of the human mind, calling this faith dogmatism. Kant, according to him, made the Copernican revolution in philosophy, by being the first to point out that in order to justify the possibility of knowledge, one should proceed from the fact that not our cognitive abilities correspond to the world, but the world must conform to our abilities, so that knowledge could take place at all. In other words, our consciousness does not just passively comprehend the world as it really is (dogmatism), but, rather, on the contrary, the world conforms to the possibilities of our knowledge, namely: the mind is an active participant in the formation of the world itself, given to us in experience. Experience is essentially a synthesis of that sensory content (“matter”) that is given by the world (things in themselves) and that subjective form in which this matter (sensations) is comprehended by consciousness. A single synthetic whole of matter and form Kant calls experience, which by necessity becomes something only subjective. That is why Kant distinguishes the world as it is in itself (that is, outside the formative activity of the mind) - a thing-in-itself, and the world as it is given in the phenomenon, that is, in experience.

In experience, two levels of shaping (activity) of the subject are distinguished. First, these are a priori forms of feeling (sensory contemplation) - space (external feeling) and time (internal feeling). In contemplation, sensory data (matter) are realized by us in the forms of space and time, and thus the experience of feeling becomes something necessary and universal. This is a sensory synthesis. To the question of how pure, that is, theoretical, mathematics is possible, Kant answers: it is possible as an a priori science on the basis of pure contemplations of space and time. Pure contemplation (representation) of space is the basis of geometry (three-dimensionality: for example, the relative position of points and lines and other figures), a pure representation of time is the basis of arithmetic (the number series implies the presence of an account, and the condition for the account is time).

Secondly, thanks to the categories of the understanding, the givens of contemplation are connected. This is a mental synthesis. Reason, according to Kant, deals with a priori categories, which are "forms of thought". The path to synthesized knowledge lies through the synthesis of sensations and their a priori forms - space and time - with a priori categories of reason. “Without sensibility, not a single object would be given to us, and without reason, not a single one could be thought” (Kant). Cognition is achieved by combining intuitions and concepts (categories) and is an a priori ordering of phenomena, expressed in the construction of objects based on sensations.

Quantity categories
- Unity
- Lots of
- Wholeness
Quality categories
- Reality
- Negation
- Limitation
Categories of relationship
- Substance and belonging
- Cause and investigation
- Interaction
Categories of modality
- Possibility and impossibility
- Existence and non-existence
- Necessity and chance

The sensory material of cognition, ordered through the a priori mechanisms of contemplation and reason, becomes what Kant calls experience. On the basis of sensations (which can be expressed by statements like “this is yellow” or “this is sweet”), which are formed through time and space, as well as through a priori categories of reason, judgments of perception arise: “the stone is warm”, “the sun is round”, then - “the sun shone, and then the stone became warm”, and further - developed judgments of experience, in which the observed objects and processes are brought under the category of causality: “the sun caused the stone to heat up”, etc. Kant's concept of experience coincides with the concept of nature: “ …nature and possible experience is exactly the same" representation i think which must be able to accompany all other representations and be the same in every consciousness. As I. S. Narsky writes, transcendental apperception Kant is “the principle of constancy and systemic organization of the action of categories, arising from the unity of the one who applies them, reasoning"I". (...) It is common to ... empirical "I" and in this sense, the objective logical structure of their consciousness, ensuring the internal unity of experience, science and nature.

Much space is devoted in the Critique to how representations are subsumed under the concepts of the understanding (categories). Here the decisive role is played by the ability of judgment, imagination and rational categorical schematism. According to Kant, there must be a mediating link between intuitions and categories, thanks to which abstract concepts, which are categories, are able to organize sensory data, turning them into law-like experience, that is, into nature. The intermediary between thinking and sensibility in Kant is productive power of the imagination. This ability creates a scheme of time as "a pure image of all sense objects in general." Thanks to the scheme of time, there exists, for example, the scheme of "multiplicity" - a number as a successive attachment of units to each other; the scheme of "reality" - the existence of an object in time; the scheme of "substantiality" - the stability of a real object in time; scheme of "existence" - the presence of an object at a certain time; the scheme of "necessity" - the presence of a certain object at all times. By the productive power of the imagination, the subject, according to Kant, generates the foundations of pure natural science (they are also the most general laws of nature). According to Kant, pure natural science is the result of a priori categorical synthesis.

Knowledge is given by synthesis of categories and observations. Kant showed for the first time that our knowledge of the world is not a passive reflection of reality; according to Kant, it arises due to the active creative activity unconscious productive power of the imagination.

Finally, having described the empirical application of reason (that is, its application in experience), Kant asks the question of the possibility of a pure application of reason (reason, according to Kant, is the lowest level of reason, the application of which is limited to the sphere of experience). Here a new question arises: "How is metaphysics possible?". As a result of the study of pure reason, Kant shows that reason, when it tries to get unambiguous and conclusive answers to philosophical questions proper, inevitably plunges itself into contradictions; this means that the mind cannot have a transcendent application that would allow it to achieve theoretical knowledge about things in themselves, because, seeking to go beyond experience, it "entangles itself" in paralogisms and antinomies (contradictions, each of whose statements is equally justified); reason in the narrow sense - as opposed to reason operating with categories - can only have a regulatory meaning: to be a regulator of the movement of thought towards the goals of systematic unity, to give a system of principles that any knowledge must satisfy.

Kant argues that the solution of antinomies "can never be found in experience ...".

Kant considers the solution of the first two antinomies to be the identification of a situation in which "the question itself does not make sense." Kant argues, as I. S. Narsky writes, “that the properties of ‘beginning’, ‘boundary’, ‘simplicity’ and ‘complexity’ are not applicable to the world of things in themselves outside of time and space, and the world of phenomena is never given to us in in its entirety precisely as an integral “world”, while the empiricism of the fragments of the phenomenal world cannot be invested in these characteristics ... ". As for the third and fourth antinomies, the dispute in them, according to Kant, is "settled" if one recognizes the truth of their antitheses for phenomena and assumes the (regulative) truth of their theses for things in themselves. Thus, the existence of antinomies, according to Kant, is one of the proofs of the correctness of his transcendental idealism, which contrasted the world of things in themselves and the world of appearances.

According to Kant, any future metaphysics that wants to be a science must take into account the implications of his critique of pure reason.

Ethics and the problem of religion

In the Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals and the Critique of Practical Reason, Kant expounds the theory of ethics. Practical reason in Kant's teaching is the only source of principles of moral conduct; it is the mind growing into the will. Ethics of Kant is autonomous and a priori, it is aimed at what is due, and not at what exists. Its autonomy means the independence of moral principles from non-moral arguments and grounds. The reference point for Kantian ethics is not the actual actions of people, but the norms arising from the "pure" moral will. This is ethics debt. In the apriorism of duty, Kant seeks the source of the universality of moral norms.

Categorical imperative

Imperative - a rule that contains "objective coercion to act." Moral law - coercion, the need to act contrary to empirical influences. So, it takes the form of a coercive command - an imperative.

Hypothetical imperatives(relative or conditional imperatives) say that actions are effective in achieving certain goals (for example, pleasure or success).

The principles of morality go back to one supreme principle - categorical imperative, prescribing actions that are good in themselves, objectively, without regard to any goal other than morality itself (for example, the requirement of honesty). The categorical imperative says:

« act only in accordance with such a maxim, guided by which you can at the same time wish it to become a universal law"[options: "always act in such a way that the maxim (principle) of your behavior can become a universal law (act as you would wish everyone to act)"];
« act in such a way that you always treat humanity, both in your own person and in the person of everyone else, as an end, and never treat it only as a means"[wording option: "treat humanity in your own person (as well as in the person of any other) always as an end and never - only as a means"];
« principle the will of every person will, with all its maxims establishing universal laws”: one should “do everything from the maxim of one’s will as such, which could also have itself as an object as a will that establishes universal laws.”

It's three different ways represent one and the same law, and each of them combines the other two.

The existence of man "has in itself the highest goal ..."; “... only morality and humanity, insofar as it is capable of it, have dignity,” writes Kant.

Duty is the necessity of action out of respect for the moral law.

In ethical teaching, a person is considered from two points of view:

man as a phenomenon;
man as a thing in itself.

The behavior of the former is determined solely by external circumstances and is subject to a hypothetical imperative. The behavior of the second must obey the categorical imperative, the highest a priori moral principle. Thus, behavior can be determined by both practical interests and moral principles. Two tendencies arise: the pursuit of happiness (the satisfaction of certain material needs) and the pursuit of virtue. These strivings can contradict each other, and thus the “antinomy of practical reason” arises.

As conditions for the applicability of the categorical imperative in the world of phenomena, Kant puts forward three postulates of practical reason. The first postulate requires the complete autonomy of the human will, its freedom. Kant expresses this postulate with the formula: "You must, therefore you can." Recognizing that without the hope of happiness, people would not have enough mental strength fulfill his duty in spite of internal and external obstacles, Kant puts forward the second postulate: “there must be immortality human soul." Thus, Kant resolves the antinomy of striving for happiness and striving for virtue by transferring the hopes of the individual to the supra-empirical world. For the first and second postulates, a guarantor is needed, and only God can be it, which means that he must exist- such is the third postulate of practical reason.

The autonomy of Kant's ethics means the dependence of religion on ethics. According to Kant, "religion is no different from morality in its content."

The doctrine of law and the state

The state is an association of many people subject to legal laws.

In the doctrine of law, Kant developed the ideas of the French Enlightenment: the need to destroy all forms of personal dependence, the assertion of personal freedom and equality before the law. Kant derived legal laws from moral ones. Kant recognized the right to freely express his opinion, but with a caveat: "argue as much as you like and about anything, just obey."

State structures cannot be immutable and change when they are no longer necessary. And only the republic is durable (the law is independent and does not depend on any individual).

In the doctrine of relations between states, Kant opposes the unjust state of these relations, against the dominance of strong law in international relations. He advocates the creation of an equal union of peoples. Kant believed that such a union brings humanity closer to the realization of the idea of eternal peace.

The doctrine of expediency. Aesthetics

As a connecting link between the Critique of Pure Reason and the Critique of Practical Reason, Kant creates the Critique of Judgment, which focuses on the concept of expediency. Subjective expediency, according to Kant, is present in the aesthetic ability of judgment, objective - in teleological. The first is expressed in the harmony of the aesthetic object.

In aesthetics, Kant distinguishes between two types of aesthetic ideas - the beautiful and the sublime. The aesthetic is what one likes about an idea, regardless of its presence. Beauty is perfection associated with form. In Kant, the beautiful acts as a "symbol of the morally good." The Sublime is the perfection associated with infinity in force (dynamically sublime) or in space (mathematical sublime). An example of a dynamically sublime is a storm. An example of the mathematically sublime is mountains. A genius is a person capable of embodying aesthetic ideas.

The teleological ability of judgment is connected with the concept of a living organism as a manifestation of expediency in nature.

About a human

Kant's views on man are reflected in the book Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View (1798). Its main part consists of three sections in accordance with the three abilities of a person: knowledge, feeling of pleasure and displeasure, the ability to desire.

Man is “the most important thing in the world”, since he has self-consciousness.

Man is the highest value, it is a person. Self-consciousness of a person gives rise to egoism as a natural property of a person. A person does not manifest it only when he considers his "I" not as the whole world, but only as part of it. It is necessary to curb egoism, to control the spiritual manifestations of the personality with the mind.

A person can have unconscious ideas - "dark". In darkness, the process of the birth of creative ideas can take place, which a person can know only at the level of sensations.

From the sexual feeling (passion) the mind is clouded. But in a person, a moral and cultural norm is imposed on feelings and desires.

Such a concept as genius was subjected to Kant's analysis. "The talent for invention is called genius."

Memory

In 1935, the International Astronomical Union named a crater on the visible side of the Moon after Immanuel Kant.

Popular biographies

Immanuel Kant(1724–1804) is the founder of German classical philosophy. All his work is divided into two periods: subcritical, in which he deals mainly with the problems of natural science and promotes the idea of development in nature, and critical, in which his main task was to study the possibilities of the knowing mind. In the critical period, the most important works of Kant are the Critique of Pure Reason, the Critique of Practical Reason, and the Critique of Judgment. Kant's epistemological views include analysis of the three stages of cognition. In the Critique of Practical Reason, Kant argues that the object of knowledge is a material thing that is outside of man and his consciousness. At the same time, the sense organs allow us to cognize only the external side of objects, while their internal content remains inaccessible to the cognizing mind. So on first stage of knowledge, the concept of “thing in itself” already arises.

Second step Kant analyzes knowledge in his Critique of Judgment. He holds the idea that abstract thinking, operating with general concepts, is applied to single things, to the individual essence of objects, therefore, here this essence remains unknowable, because general concepts, according to the philosopher, arise before experience, a priori, and do not have connection with the objective world.

Third step Kant considers knowledge in the book Critique of Pure Reason (this book revolutionized philosophy). In it, the thinker analyzes the highest philosophical mind and argues that in this case, too, the mind becomes entangled in insoluble contradictions that exclude the possibility of knowing the essence of things. Kant called these contradictions "antinomies", which include mutually exclusive propositions, each of which can be proven to be true. Kant gave 4 examples of such antinomies (each containing a thesis and an antithesis):

1) “The world has a beginning in time and is limited only in space” (thesis); “The world has no beginning in time and is boundless in space. He is infinite in space and time” (antithesis);

2) each complex substance both consists and does not consist of simple parts;

3) there are two kinds of causality - one corresponds to the laws of nature, the other - to freedom (thesis); there is one causality corresponding to the laws of nature (antithesis);

4) there is and does not exist an absolutely necessary being.

Thus, Kant was the representative of agnosticism.

Kant was born, lived all his life and died in Konigsberg. After graduating from the University of Königsberg, Kant worked for some time as a home teacher in the homes of Prussian aristocrats. He later returned to the university to take up the post of Privatdozent and later Professor of Logic and Metaphysics.

Kant continued to write and correct his theories until his death at the age of 80, at the very beginning of the new century. And although he never left his native Konigsberg, his mind overcame space and time and left an indelible mark on the thinking of his civilization.

G. Hegel, L. Feuerbach and others. It can be assessed as the pinnacle of European rationalism, associated with faith in the almost limitless possibilities of the mind.

The most important achievements of German classical philosophy:

1) the idea of the subject of philosophy, its role in the culture and life of mankind is substantiated. Philosophy appears as a rigorous science, as a system of disciplines, characterized by a high degree of generalization and abstraction, with its carefully developed categorical apparatus;

2) a turn was made to history as a philosophical problem, the question of the meaning of human history, its nature and patterns was conceptually raised. History is presented as the path of reason, which has strict laws that can be explored and, on their basis, control the development of society;

3) the dialectical method was created and developed.

The ancestor of the classical German philosophy counts I. Kant, who justified the doubt in the ability of a person to solve all problems, relying solely on his own mind. In general, two periods are traditionally distinguished in Kant's work: "pre-critical" and "critical".

AT "subcritical" period(before 1770) Kant developed the doctrine of the gravitational interaction of the Earth and the Moon, the historical development of cosmic bodies, put forward a hypothesis about the emergence of the solar system in a natural way from the original gaseous nebula. Thanks to this, Kant was able to create an evolving picture of the world that did not correspond to the hostile evolution of the metaphysical-mechanistic model of the world. The idea of development served as an important step in the formation of dialectics as a doctrine of development and its internal sources.

In works "critical" period, Kant substantiated the creative nature of human cognition, clearly identified the problem of its conditions and boundaries, created the doctrine of the sources of cognition, carrying out the "Copernican revolution in philosophy." The essence of this revolution, which destroyed traditional ideas, comes down to Kant's conclusion that it is not the ways of organizing thinking that are consistent with the forms of being, but, on the contrary, the world of objects, as we know it, is consistent with the forms of organizing our thinking. If before Kant thinkers believed that a person passively reflects the outside world, then in his teaching cognition is considered as an active creative process. The result of such creativity is a mismatch (discrepancy) between the world of "things-in-themselves" and the world of "things for us", which is why a person is not able to comprehend the true essence of things. This position of fundamental unknowability of the world is called agnosticism .

The world of "things-in-themselves"- this is an undivided external reality that exists before cognition, and is independent of it. The "thing-in-itself" only excites our cognitive abilities, gives them an impulse to action. The result of this action is the image of the outside world (" the world of things for us» ), consisting of many independent, separated from each other objects, interconnected by stable law-like relations. The image of the world is constructed in the process of cognition and is determined, first of all, by the organizational, pre-experimental (a priori) forms of our cognitive abilities.

Among the main cognitive abilities, Kant names the following:

1. Sensuality, or the ability to perceive and represent: on this stage the chaos of sensations is ordered with the help of a priori forms of sensibility - space and time.

2. Reason, which has the a priori ability to produce concepts and categories, and also to form judgments on their basis: thanks to this, sensory experience is laid down in a conceptual "grid". The synthesis of the sensual and the rational that is being carried out is possible thanks to the “productive imagination” with which reason is endowed.

3. Intelligence, or the ability of inference, the function of which is to form the ultimate goals of cognition in the form unconditional ideas- ideas of the soul, nature and God. In the idea of the soul human mind seeks to cover the entire sphere of internal experience, in the idea of nature - the entire sphere of external experience, in the idea of God - to give a justification to any experience in general.

Unconditional ideas are not derived from experience and therefore are not cognizable by the mind, the senses cannot give them an adequate subject. Forming unconditional ideas, the human mind tries to derive knowledge about what is not sensory data, that is, to go beyond the limits of experience, and it turns out antinomic by its nature (faces with unresolvable logical contradictions).

Kant identifies four antinomies- four groups of contradictory judgments, equally logically provable:

1. The world has a beginning in time and is limited in space / The world has no beginning in time and no boundaries in space.

2. All complex things consist of simple parts, and, in general, there is only simple or what is composed of simple / Not a single complex thing consists of simple parts and, in general, there is nothing simple in the world.

3. To explain phenomena, it is necessary to admit the existence of free causality, that is, causality according to the laws of nature is not the only one / There is no freedom, everything happens in the world only according to the laws of nature.

4. As its cause, the world has an absolutely necessary essence / Nowhere is there any absolutely necessary essence - neither in the world nor outside it - as its causes.

The cognizing consciousness is thus likened by Kant to a kind of machine that, processing sensory material, gives it the form of representations and judgments. His activity is limited to the sphere of experience.

And although Kant did not find any evidence of the existence of God in the field of reason, he does not deny either the existence of God, or the immortality of the soul, or the possibility of freedom. In his view, a person can and should believe in what is incomprehensible to reason - in the existence of God, the existence of freedom, the irrelevance of good. Thus, Kant separated the questions of theoretical reason (“What can I know?”) from the question that asks practical reason: “What should I do?”.

According to Kant, a necessary prerequisite for morality, which determines the scope of what is due, is human freedom. Kant divided all moral laws (imperatives) into two classes: hypothetical - dictate actions that are evaluated in terms of their possible consequences, and categorical - encouraging self-valuable actions that are good without regard to the consequences, regardless of any other goal.

In his actions, man, as a free being, can rely only on such moral standards which are independent not only of the pressure of circumstances or the laws of nature, but also of any subjective idea of happiness derived from experience. World of freedom, thus, is a world of moral choice, where a person is subject only to independently put forward rules. The basis of morality and freedom is not reason, but moral faith, or reasonable will guided by categorical imperative(a requirement that must be fulfilled under any conditions): “Act in such a way that the maxim of your will can at all times also serve as the norm of universal legislation.”

The freedom of a person, according to Kant, does not consist in the fact that his action gives exactly the result to which he aspires, but in the fact that he is free to act contrary to circumstances and even without hope of success, only in accordance with the requirements of duty. The categorical imperative prescribes a universal humanistic requirement to consider the other person only as an end (as the highest value) and never consider him a means to satisfy one's needs.

Thus, Kant's position already differs in a number of respects from the position of the French materialists.

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Introduction

For my essay, I chose such a famous person as Immanuel Kant. He, like many philosophers, was considered a person “not of this world”, his philosophy is original and unique.

Kant is called "the founder of German classical philosophy". Indeed, almost all types of classical and modern philosophizing in one way or another go back to the work of this thinker. For Kant, the problem of man comes first. He does not forget about the universe, but the main theme for him is man. He thought about the laws of being and consciousness with only one goal: to make a person more humane. Kant's ideas have undergone a transformation, but they continue to live.

The study of Kant's philosophical heritage is complicated by the multiplicity and variety of sources of information about his life and work. Kant had a habit of immediately writing down any thought that came into his head. Sometimes these were specially prepared sheets, more often - the first scrap that caught my eye: a letter that had just arrived, an invoice from a merchant, etc. His life is unceasing spiritual development, eternal search, up to recent years when the thought got out of his control. kant philosophy precritical

Kant's work is divided into two stages:

The first stage is the so-called "sub-critical" or "dogmatic" one. During this period, the philosopher was mainly engaged in natural science problems and put forward a number of important hypotheses, including the "nebular" cosmogonic hypothesis, according to which the emergence and evolution of the solar system is derived from the existence of the "original nebula". Kant himself called his state during these years "dogmatic sleep." He thinks like a dogmatist, exaggerating the role of formal-deductive methods of thinking, in comparison with experimental knowledge. The second stage is the so-called "critical". The works of this period consistently set forth: "critical theory of knowledge", ethics, aesthetics and the doctrine of the expediency of nature. The main attention of the philosopher focused on a critical analysis of human cognitive abilities, on the development of an appropriate theory of knowledge. Under the influence of Hume's skepticism and empiricism, Kant introduced the concept of negative quantities into philosophy, ridiculed the contemporaries' fascination with mysticism and "spiritual vision". During this period, he attaches great importance to the use of empirical knowledge in philosophy.

a brief description of historical period and ideology of time

German classical philosophy covers a relatively short period, which is limited to the 80s of the XVIII century, on the one hand, and 1831 - the year of Hegel's death - on the other. Nevertheless, in a number of respects, it represents the pinnacle of philosophical development that could be reached at that time, and thus the pinnacle of pre-Marxist philosophy in general. Let's list at least some of its positive moments. Kant's philosophy completes the poetic (noe-ma, noesis. - Transl.) philosophy.

The theoretical reflection of the reflection of human freedom and equality in the period before the French Revolution found its expression in Kant's philosophy. In German classical philosophy, we find the beginnings of the "philosophy of the active side" in Fichte, the foundations of natural speculation in Schelling, his concept of the "dynamic process" in nature, close to materialist dialectics, Hegel's dialectical concept, close to reality and at the same time due to its idealism far from it. Beginning with Herder, German philosophy introduces historicism into the study of society and thereby rejects the non-historical and mechanistic conceptions of the previous era.

In social terms, German philosophy is evidence of the ideological awakening of the "third estate" in Germany. The economic immaturity and political weakness of the German bourgeoisie, the territorial fragmentation of Germany left their mark on it. At the same time, German philosophy used the results of the development of philosophical thought in Italy, France, England and Holland. This moment is very positive.

The significance of German classical philosophy was partly devalued by the idealistic form, which later became fatal for it. At the same time, despite its non-specific, mystifying nature, which excluded a strict causal analysis of the studied phenomena, it contributed to the fact that the reflection of new scientific knowledge and the impact community development occurred so timely that, as they say, she instantly reacted to new stimuli.

Germany in Kant's time is not a single state entity, but a conglomerate consisting of many, for the most part, small principalities, electors, "free" imperial cities, and kingdoms. The political life of the German states was dominated by class separatism and discord of local interests of the most miserable scale. Political separatism was a form in which the underdevelopment of the economic life of Germany and the immaturity of its social forces were manifested. “The impotence of each individual area of life (here one cannot speak of estates or classes, and in extreme cases only of former estates and unborn classes) did not allow any of them to win exclusive dominance” K. Marx and F. Engels, Works, vol. 3, p. 183.

Philosophy and science were in even worse conditions than literature. Philosophical thought was dominated by theological tutelage. The attempts of Reimarus and Lessing to introduce a spirit of criticism into biblical history were seen as a daring attack on the foundations of Protestant religiosity. (Kant, as will be shown below, experienced for himself the power of clerical slander and theological guardianship.) In philosophy, the dominance of theology was reflected in the very content of the disciplines taught at universities: in "rational theology" ("philosophical" justification of religion), "rational psychology ”, i.e. the “philosophical”, but essentially religious, doctrine of the immaterial essence of the soul and, finally, “rational cosmology”, as the speculative doctrine of the universe was called, usually adapted to the Old Testament ideas about the world. In substantiating all these teachings leading role played the ideas of Wolf - a follower of the idealist Leibniz. Numerous students of Wolff occupied most of the philosophical chairs in Germany. The philosophy developed by them was full of compromises with religion and represented a simplified, in many respects even vulgarized school processing of Leibniz's idealism, his doctrine of expediency in nature. Such was the philosophical school that Kant had to go through.

Biography of the philosopher

Immanuel Kant is the largest German scientist, philosopher, founder of German classical philosophy, a man whose works had a huge impact on the development of philosophical thought in the 18th and subsequent centuries.

In 1740, Immanuel Kant became a student at the Albertina University of Koenigsberg, but the death of his father prevented him from completely unlearning. For 10 years, Kant, providing financial support for his family, has been working as a home teacher in different families, having left his native Koenigsberg. Difficult everyday circumstances do not prevent him from engaging in scientific activities. So, in 1747-1750. Kant's attention was focused on his own cosmogonic theory of the origin of the solar system from the original nebula, the relevance of which has not been lost to this day.

The year 1770 also became a milestone in his scientific biography: he divides his work into the so-called. subcritical and critical periods. In the second, a number of fundamental works were written, which not only enjoyed great success, but also allowed Kant to enter the circle of outstanding thinkers of the century. The field of epistemology includes his work Critique of Pure Reason (1781), ethics - Critique of Practical Reason (1788). In 1790, the essay "Critique of the Faculty of Judgment" touching on issues of aesthetics was published. Kant's worldview as a philosopher was formed to a certain extent thanks to the study of the works of Rousseau, Hume and a number of other thinkers.

In turn, the influence of the works of Immanuel Kant himself on the subsequent development of philosophical thought is difficult to overestimate. German classical philosophy, of which he was the founder, later included major philosophical systems developed by Fichte, Schelling, Hegel. The romantic movement was influenced by Kant's teachings. Schopenhauer's philosophy also shows the influence of his ideas. In the second half of the XIX century. “neo-Kantianism” was very relevant; in the 20th century, Kant’s philosophical heritage influenced, in particular, existentialism, the phenomenological school, etc.

The main ideas of Kant's philosophy

Immanuel Kant is one of the outstanding thinkers of the 18th century. The influence of his scientific and philosophical ideas went far beyond the era in which he lived. Kant put forward a number of new and advanced scientific ideas for his time: the hypothesis of the emergence of the solar system from diffuse solid particles of matter, the hypothesis of the cosmic significance of tidal friction, and the hypothesis of the existence of a whole system of outer galaxies. Kant belongs to the further - after Descartes and Galileo - the development of the idea of the relativity of motion and rest. Kant's philosophy begins in Germany with a trend known as classical German idealism. This trend played a big role in the development of world philosophical thought.

On the one hand, Kant seeks to find out what in cognition is conditioned by the activity of consciousness itself. Man as a subject of cognition is studied by Kant as an active being, and his consciousness as an active synthesis of the data of experience. On the other hand, the activity of consciousness is opposed by Kant to the objective, independent of consciousness content of reality, it is torn off from its basis, which is proclaimed inaccessible to knowledge.

This contradiction is the main one in Kant's system. It causes numerous derivative contradictions that permeate the entire Kantian philosophy. The extremely complex teaching of Kant did not appear immediately. It underwent significant changes, absorbed a number of social, scientific and philosophical influences, before taking shape in the form that determined Kant's place in the history of philosophy.

Kant's pre-critical philosophy - main works and ideas

Already in his first book - "Thoughts on the true assessment of living forces" (1749), Kant discovered the desire to overcome the extremes of the warring philosophical schools, as well as an interest in studying the essence of matter and space. In the early period, Kant considered space to be a dynamic environment that arises from the interaction of its constituent simple substances, provided that they have a common cause - God. Such an interpretation made it possible to relativize the fundamental characteristics of space, such as the number of its dimensions. By changing the parameters of interacting substances, Kant argued, space could have not three, but more dimensions.

In addition to writing abstract philosophical treatises, in the pre-critical (as, indeed, in the critical) period, Kant also created more popular texts. So, he published several essays on the history of the Earth, on the causes of earthquakes, etc. But the most famous work of the natural philosophical cycle was published in 1755 "The General History and Theory of the Sky." Here Kant paints a picture of an evolving universe, naturally formed from the chaos of matter under the influence of forces of attraction and repulsion. Kant was sure that over time, order gradually replaces chaos. In The History of Heaven, he also emphasizes that although the world is ordered by natural laws alone, this does not mean that in his interpretation the scientist can dispense with the concept of God.

After all, the natural laws themselves, which give rise to cosmic harmony, cannot be the result of chance and must be thought of as a creation. higher mind. In addition, even sophisticated natural scientific methods, Kant believed, cannot explain the phenomenon of expediency in general and life in particular. Kant retained this conviction in the critical period of his work, denying that the expediency of living beings can be interpreted without invoking the concept of a reasonable cause of nature - he was, as they say, a thinker of the pre-Darwinian era.

Despite Kant's interest in natural-philosophical and natural-science topics, the focus of his attention was still not physics, but metaphysics.

Already in the early period, he retreated from the literal presentation of the Wolffian textbooks he used in his lectures and tried to find his own way in this science. More precisely, he believed that metaphysics had yet to become one. To give it rigor, he undertook a number of methodological studies. It is important that Kant did not share the then widespread opinion that in order to become a rigorous science, metaphysics must become like mathematics.

He argued that the methods of these sciences differ. Mathematics is constructive, metaphysics is analytical. The task of metaphysics is to reveal the elementary concepts of human thought. And already in the pre-Critical period, Kant more than once expressed the idea that a philosopher should avoid arbitrary fabrications in every possible way. In other words, the question of the limits of human knowledge turned out to be an important problem of philosophy. Kant states this in one of the central works of the pre-critical period, Dreams of a Spiritualist Explained by Dreams of Metaphysics (1766), where he comes to the conclusion that the boundaries of knowledge generally coincide with the boundaries of experience.

This thesis is the theoretical basis for his criticism of the Swedish mystic E. Swedenborg, to which, in fact, Dreams of a Spiritseer is dedicated. Swedenborg boldly talked about the supersensible world and talked about the existence of a special spiritual environment that ensures direct communication of souls. Kant undermined the foundations of such metaphysical fantasies.

At the same time, it would be wrong to interpret Kant's early philosophy exclusively in empiricist and skeptical terms. The "skeptical method", taken from Hume, was only one of the research programs developed by Kant in the pre-critical period. In a number of works of this period, Kant appears before the reader in a completely different guise - as a thinker, aspiring to supersensible heights and confident in their reach. We are talking primarily about the work of 1763 "The only possible basis for proving the existence of God."

Criticizing here the traditional arguments in favor of the existence of a Supreme Being, Kant at the same time puts forward his own, "ontological" argument, based on the recognition of the necessity of some kind of existence (if nothing exists, then there is no material for things, and they are impossible; but the impossible is impossible, which means that some kind of existence is necessary) and the identification of this primordial existence with God. The “dogmatic” works of the pre-critical period can also include “The experience of some observations on optimism” (1759) and the dissertation of 1770 “On the form and principles of the sensually perceived and intelligible peace."

But if in the "Experience" Kant builds quite traditional schemes in the spirit of Leibniz-Wolfian philosophy, then in his dissertation he discusses the cognizability of the supersensible world from other positions, relying on the theory he developed in the late 60s. new theory of space and time. During this period, Kant abandoned the relativistic theory of space that he had previously accepted, as he discovered that the explanation of space through the relationship of substances does not allow one to conceptualize such an important property of the latter as the difference between right and left (for example, right and left gloves can be completely identical in terms of their relationship). parts, and yet differ from each other: the right glove cannot be put on the left hand).

This phenomenon of "incongruent similarities", recorded in the 1768 work "On the First Foundation for the Discrimination of Sides in Space", forced Kant to accept the concept of absolute space, although the Newtonian interpretation of such space as a container of things with an independent reality always seemed to him absurd. And already in 1769 Kant finds a way to get rid of this mysterious entity.

The essence of Kant's solution, which is set forth in his dissertation of 1770, is that absolute space can be interpreted in a subjective sense, i.e., as a subjective condition independent of things of a person's perception of external influences, or an a priori form of sensory contemplation. By analogy with space, Kant also rethought time, which also turned out to be an a priori form of sensibility for him, only in the case of time we are talking not about an external, but about an internal feeling. With this understanding, the immediate spatio-temporal objects of the senses turned out to be devoid of an independent existence, that is, independent of the perceiving subject, and received the name "phenomena". Things, as they exist independently of us, "in themselves", were called by Kant "noumena", in order to emphasize their insensible, "intelligible" character.

This concept was subsequently designated by Kant as transcendental idealism. One of the consequences is a methodological conclusion about the inadmissibility of mixing sensory and rational concepts. After all, the very possibility of thinking things in themselves testifies that the ability of thinking (reason) is not limited in its application to the world of sensory phenomena.

Attempts to equate the areas of application of sensible and rational concepts, as, for example, occurs in the statement “everything that exists, exists somewhere and sometime” are, Kant said, the main cause of metaphysical errors. Kant also defended a similar thesis at a critical period, but in a different context.

In 1770, he believed that a person can not only think, but also know things in themselves, that is, think them with the consciousness of the objective truth of these thoughts. Ten years later, when he published the Critique of Pure Reason (1781, second revised edition - 1787), his position changed dramatically. Now Kant argued that man is able to know only phenomena, but not things in themselves.

Critical period of Kant's philosophy

The onset of the critical period was associated with work on the form and principles of the sensible and intelligible world” (1770), in which I. Kant contrasted two ways of representing the world: natural science and philosophy. For natural science, the world appears as a phenomenon (phenomenon), which is always located in space and time. Such a world is determined by the structures of human consciousness, is subjective and obeys the laws of physics.

This is a world of unfreedom, where the provisions of philosophy, morality and religion are meaningless. In the phenomenon world, a person appears as a physical object, the movement of which is determined by the same laws as the movement of inanimate objects. For philosophy, the world appears as a supersensible (noumenon), located outside of space and time, not subject to the laws of physics. In such a world, freedom is possible, God is the immortality of the soul, it is the place of the spiritual life of man.

The main provisions of the critical philosophy of I. Kant are set forth in the works "Critique of Pure Reason", "Critique of Practical Reason" and "Critique of the Ability of Judgment". In the "Critique of Pure Reason" I. Kant explores in detail the cognitive structures of human consciousness. Such a study, directed at the very process of cognition, Kant calls "transcendental".

He proceeds from the fact that in the process of scientific knowledge, human consciousness acts not as a passive reflection of reality, but as an active principle that re-creates the world from sensations. Like a sculptor who creates a decorated statue from a shapeless block of marble, consciousness recreates a complete picture of the world from the material of sensations. At the same time, as in the case of a sculptor, the picture of the world created by consciousness differs from how the world exists objectively, independently of consciousness. The picture of the world recreated by consciousness, I. Kant designates by the term "phenomenon", and the world itself calls the term "thing in itself" or "noumenon".

Three cognitive abilities of a person, three levels of consciousness - sensuality, reason and reason. Each of them contributes to the processing of sensations and the formation of a complete picture of the world. The doctrine of sensibility is called transcendental aesthetics, the doctrine of reason - transcendental analytics, the doctrine of reason - transcendental dialectics.

Cognition begins with sensibility, which is influenced by the objective world or "thing in itself". The received sensations are processed by two forms of sensibility - space and time, which appear in I. Kant as properties of consciousness. Then the image of the object formed by sensuality is transferred to the level of reason, the forms of which are philosophical categories. Thanks active. the activity of the mind from the combination of a universal category and a single image arises a scientific idea of the world.

I. Kant claims that scientific picture world does not correspond to what the world really is, and is the result of the hundredth active activity of sensuality and reason. Thus, the study of these two cognitive abilities provides an answer to the question of how natural science is possible.

In connection with it, Kant declares that reason dictates the laws of nature. This means that all the laws of nature discovered by the scientist are in fact created by his own consciousness, which constantly creates the world from the material of sensations in a hidden, “unconscious” way. This means that scientific knowledge is always imperfect and limited by the sphere of the sensory world. I. Kant emphasizes that three cognitive abilities - sensibility, reason and mind - are inherent in all people, therefore they can be considered as a structure of the collective consciousness of mankind. Thus, although the truths of science are not objective, they are "generally valid", as they are understandable to all representatives of the human race.

Mind, the highest cognitive ability, is of the least importance in the sphere of scientific knowledge. It acts both as a systematizer of knowledge and as a source of the goals of scientific knowledge. The mind is not able to independently cognize the world, because it does not have access to sensory experience. Such a "theoretical" mind periodically falls into contradictions, trying to cognize the world, and not having the appropriate opportunities for this. The mind consists of three ideas - God, the soul and the world as a whole.

He tries to cognize each of these ideas, while falling into insoluble "dialectical" contradictions. Exposing the illusory nature of the cognitive activity of the mind, I. Kant, thereby, denies the possibility of scientific knowledge of religious truths related to the problems of the existence of God, the immortality of the soul and the origin of the world. The soul and God are not objects of habitual sensory experience, and the world is always given to a person not in its entirety, but only represented by its insignificant part. Therefore, I. Kant subjected to detailed consideration and criticism of philosophical theories that prove the immortality of the soul, the existence of God, or reasoning about the creation of the world.

However, the weakness of "theoretical" reason becomes a strength when it comes to "practical" reason. The sphere of practical reason is formed by the moral actions of a person, his inner spiritual world and relationships with other people. For practical reason, man appears not as physical body, subject to the inexorable cause-and-effect relationships of the mechanics of I. Newton, but as a free person who herself determines the reasons for her actions.

The spiritual life of a person no longer takes place in the sensual world of the phenomenon, subject to the laws of reason, but in the superphysical world of the noumenon, subject to the laws of reason. This world is higher than the sensible world, and practical reason is higher than the theoretical natural scientific reason. This is due to the fact that knowledge acquires meaning only when it helps a person to become a person. Theoretical reason and the natural science associated with it are unable to solve this problem. The subject and main goal of practical reason is the good, which is achievable only in deeds.

The three ideas of reason, which caused illusions and contradictions in the theoretical sphere, turn into three most important postulates in the practical sphere, without which the life of a person and humanity as a whole is impossible. These postulates are free will in the intelligible world, the immortality of the soul and the existence of God. Although they cannot be proven or refuted by the means of science, nevertheless, they are an object of faith, without which it is impossible to commit moral acts. Practical reason acts as a unity of reason and will, knowledge and action, which is expressed in the concept of the "categorical imperative", which is the central link in I. Kant's teaching about practical reason. The categorical imperative is an eternal moral law that defines the form of moral action and characterizes volitional action based on reason.

According to I. Kant, the categorical imperative requires a person, when committing an act, to imagine a situation in which his act would become for everyone a universal model and law of behavior. For example, if a person is going to commit a theft, then he must imagine what will happen if everyone does this.

The main condition for a moral act is the possibility of making a free decision independent of external circumstances. It cannot be considered a moral act performed in the calculation of a reward, for selfish reasons or under the influence of instincts. A moral act can be performed only on the basis of reason, which gains freedom in the intelligible world of the noumenon. Thus, the world as a “thing in itself”, open from the theoretical reason of science, is open to the practical reason of morality and religion.

In the Kantian philosophical system sensory world phenomenon, which is the subject of research of the theoretical scientific mind, forms the sphere of non-freedom, necessity, predetermination. The intelligible World of the noumenon, in which the life of practical reason unfolds, is a sphere of freedom and a place of expression of the true essence of man. Man, in the spirit of ancient philosophy, appears in I. Kant as a dual being, which is capable of rising to the state of freedom and humanity or falling and turning into an animal, whose life is entirely determined by external forces and circumstances.

The sharp opposition between the phenomenal and noumenal worlds, necessity and freedom, theory and practice in the philosophy of I. Kant was perceived by many of his contemporaries as a source of irremovable contradictions. I. Kant's attempt to complete his system with the help of the philosophy of art, which was supposed to combine theoretical and practical reason, knowledge and faith, science and religion, did not receive wide recognition. This made it possible to further spill the German classical philosophy.

Place and role in the development of philosophy

Thus, Kant calls law the bearer of "pure reason" in social relationships. It is he who is entrusted with the function of making a person the highest value of society, asserting such a status for him so that a person can fully understand the world, develop virtues in himself, and strive for the sublime. The understanding of law as such an a priori value has found its practical application in the modern concept of law in developed democratic states, where a person, his rights and freedoms are undeniable priorities.

Consequently, Kant's political and legal views were ahead of his time. Trying to formulate a new rationalistic, but at the same time humanistic philosophical doctrine, with a new look at society, the state and law, ethics, science, culture, religion, Kant succeeded significantly in this, putting the human ability to know at the forefront.

This outstanding thinker, the founder of German classical philosophy, despite the inconsistency of his teaching and the fallacy of individual judgments, did a lot for the development of philosophy, sociology, the theory of state and law, and pedagogy. The place and role of Kant in the history of philosophy and science is generally difficult to assess objectively, but we can say with confidence that without Immanuel Kant modern philosophy would have been completely different.

Conclusion

Having briefly studied the biography and philosophical teachings of the outstanding German thinker Immanuel Kant, we were convinced that he had a fateful influence on the history of philosophy. The main merit of the philosopher is the development of an original theory of knowledge, as well as aesthetic, aesthetic, anthropological and legal doctrine who laid the foundation for German classical philosophy. As an agnostic, Kant denied the possibility of absolute knowledge of the world by man, but at the same time put forward the idea that not the object, but the subject - the "thing in itself" is more important in the process of cognition.

Thus, a person is given sensual and "pure knowledge" - ideas about the quantity, quality and modality of objects. Knowledge is given to us a priori, therefore, "pure reason" must comprehend them, but it is not able to resolve contradictions - antimonies. Therefore, the main goal of knowledge is the formation of morality, morality in people, based on the categorical imperative - the universal a priori law of morality. And the person himself in this system becomes the highest value.

Of course, the contradictory teachings of Kant cannot be reduced to one paragraph. Thanks to him, dialectics began to actively develop in philosophy, and synthesis appeared as a method of scientific research. Thanks to the contribution of Kant, who influenced many prominent philosophers of the last centuries, philosophical science acquired such features as rigor and systematicity, professionalism and academicism, historicism, conceptuality and criticality, scientificity and rationality, dialectical and humanistic orientation.

Within the framework of his teaching, the main philosophical problems were clearly formulated, in particular epistemological, ontological and ethical, and an attempt was made to characterize the nature of man, the essence of knowledge and truth, the ways of human development. In fact, it determined the further development of philosophy and other humanities, being an example of professional dialectical philosophizing, where the person and his needs come first. This approach is very relevant for today.

Bibliography

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4. Kant I. Criticism of pure mind. - M.: Eksmo, 2012. - 736 p.

5. Kant I. Fundamentals of metaphysics of morality. - M.: Thought, 2001. - 1472 p.

6. Minasyan L.A. Transcendental Philosophy and Post-Non-Classical Science: Rereading Kant // Scientific Thought of the Caucasus. 2005. No. 4. S.21-30.

7. Narsky I.S. Kant. - M.: Book on demand, 2012. - 208 p.

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4.b. Kant defined philosophy as a science that gives a person knowledge about his destiny in the world. According to him, philosophy is called upon to answer these three most important questions: 1. What can I know?; 2. What should I (based on correct worldview knowledge) do? and 3. What can I hope for?.

The initial principle of Kant's philosophy: Before you start to know, you need to explore the tool of knowledge and its possibilities. Human consciousness, the founder of German classical philosophy claims, perceives only the "Phenomenon" (what appears, is shown, reaches us through feelings) of phenomena and objects, but the "Noumenon" ("thing in itself", "Dish an sich" - what a thing, a phenomenon is in reality, in itself, regardless of our feelings and sensory perceptions).

4.c. Knowledge, according to Kant, goes through three stages. The first, initial, among them, the stage of cognition is sensual contemplation. Its capabilities and content are determined, on the one hand, by the specifics of the sense organs (in this regard, Kant fully shares the views of David Hume), and, on the other hand, by the a priori (pre-experimental) forms of contemplation inherent in the senses. A priori, not taken from experience, forms of sensual contemplation, according to Kant, are Space and Time. The perception of space and time, according to Kant, is not acquired from the experience of a person, but is given to a person before any experience. Consciousness only uses the already available a priori forms of contemplation in order to order our perceptions of the feelings of the surrounding reality according to these a priori signs and group them one after one, thanks to the a priori nature of time, or one next to the other, due to the a priori nature of space. It is thanks to the forms of sensuous contemplation that are a priori inherent in us that we have the possibility of sensuous contemplation itself, that is, sensual cognition is possible. Thus, in their manifestation, Space and Time are the product of the activity of consciousness.

The next, second, stage of our cognition is rational cognition. They are higher than sensual contemplation and qualitatively different from it. At the level of the previous, sensual contemplation, a person deals with feelings, thanks to which representations are formed in the human mind, in other words, concrete-sensory images of objects and phenomena. And rational cognition is accomplished not with the help of feelings, but already with the help of reason, which begins to operate with concrete-sensory images, regardless of the sensory perception of objects and phenomena present at the given moment. Thanks to the activity of the mind, concepts are formed in the human mind. Concepts, according to Kant, do not contain ideas about the surrounding reality, but knowledge of the essence of objects and phenomena. Here is what the great philosopher writes about all this:

“Our knowledge arises from two main sources of the soul: the first of them is the ability to receive representations (susceptibility to impressions), and the second is the ability to know an object through these representations (spontaneity of concepts). Through the first ability, the object is given to us, and through the second it is thought in in relation to representations (as only one determination of the soul).Consequently, intuitions and concepts are the beginnings of all our cognition, so that neither concepts without intuition corresponding to them in some way, nor intuition without concepts can give knowledge ... Our nature is such that intuitions can only be sensible, that is, they contain only the way in which objects act on us. But only the understanding has the ability to think the object of sensible contemplation. None of these abilities can be preferred to the other. Without sensibility, not a single object would be given to us, and without reason none could be thought. and are blind. Therefore, it is equally necessary to make an object sensible (that is, to attach to them in contemplation) an object, and to comprehend one's intuitions by reason (verstandlich zu machen) (that is, to bring them under concepts). These two abilities cannot perform each other's functions. The mind can contemplate nothing, and the senses can think nothing, Only from their combination can knowledge arise. However, this does not give us the right to mix the share of each of them; there are reasons to carefully isolate and distinguish one from the other "(Kant. Critique of Pure Reason. Works, Volume 3. Moscow, 1964, pp. 154-155.

How, then, does the mind “obtain” knowledge of the essence of objects and phenomena from the ideas accumulated by sensory contemplation? Kant believes that this is done due to the innate features of the mind. These congenital features he called a priori for reason. The latter, according to the philosopher, are not acquired by a person from experience or through training, but are laid down in the mind a priori. Kant called these elements a priori innate in human reason the categories of pure reason, in other words, the universal and indispensable categories of scientific thinking. There are 12 such categories, according to Kant, which are combined into four groups: the categories of Quantity (single, universal and special), the categories of Quality (presence, absence and limitation), the categories of Relationships (substances / accidents, causes / effects, interactions) and categories of Modality (possibility/impossibility, existence/nonexistence, necessity or chance).

If we speak at the level of sensory contemplation, then the categories of pure reason, according to Kant, “discover” certain signs in our sensory representations, “sort” these signs in a certain way, and already, according to a priori criteria, “link” our representations and concepts. As a result, our logical (rational) thinking becomes possible. If we did not have these a priori categories of pure reason, then there would be no logical, rational thinking, and there would be no knowledge.

Kant's categories of pure reason played an important role in the development of not only philosophical thought, but also in the development of intellectual culture in general. First of all, it should be emphasized that by teaching about the apriority of pure reason, Kant laid a fruitful beginning in the development of the categories of all German classical philosophy, the top of the categorical apparatus of which was reached in the philosophy of Hegel. Kant himself has already defined the main group of categories of philosophical thinking, pointed out the dialectical contradiction/interdependence of these categories within each of their four groups. In the works of Kant, the Hegelian approach to considering the dialectics of the development of nature, thinking and society is already visible: thesis (single, presence, possibility ...) - antithesis (multiple, absence, impossibility ...) - synthesis (universality, interaction ...) . This is first. And secondly, the categories of pure reason are the basis of Kantian logic, whose supporters fruitfully develop it, Kantian logic, even today.

Third, the highest level of knowledge, according to Kant, is the knowledge of pure reason. At this level, a person tries to cognize what is in no way accessible to cognition either through sensory contemplation or by means of pure reason (by reasoning, logical thinking). These are truths of the highest, absolute order. Kant refers to them three groups of ideas: 1. Psychological ideas of pure reason (about the human soul, its mortality and immortality), 2. Cosmological ideas of pure reason (ideas about the Cosmos, its infinity, beginning and end) and 3. Theological ideas of pure reason (ideas about God, his existence and essence). The totality of all these ideas Kant calls the antinomies of pure reason. The philosopher proves that with the same grounds our reason can prove that a person has a soul and that a person does not have this soul; that the soul of man is mortal and that it is immortal; that matter is divisible to infinity and that there is no division of matter to infinity; that the Cosmos has a beginning and an end, is limited in space, and that the Cosmos is infinite in space and time; that the material world is dominated by necessity and that the world is dominated by chance; that God exists and that God does not exist. Kant believed that in the field of problems of pure reason there can be no demonstrative and convincing solutions for all.

Being a convinced atheist in his own worldview, Kant convincingly illustrated his philosophical conclusions regarding the antinomies of pure reason by his analysis of the theological evidence for the existence of God. In his time (and in ours too!) theologians and some theological philosophers argued that the existence of God is a scientifically reliable fact, many different kinds of evidence were cited in favor of the existence of God. For example, Kant undertook to analyze those proofs that were considered and are now considered classical, that is, the most convincing, unsurpassed and insurmountable proofs of the existence of God. These include proofs: Ontological, Cosmological and Teleological. We will now neither set out the essence of these theological proofs, nor analyze the essence of Kant's refutations of these proofs. Let's just say that Kant classically showed the inconsistency of the evidence for the existence of God and thus made a significant contribution to the development of atheistic thought. Here we note that by his criticism of the evidence for the existence of God, Kant aroused malicious hatred for himself on the part of contemporary churchmen. It got to the point that the most zealous church obscurantists named after Kant their unloved dogs and horses, which were then mercilessly beaten.

4.d. Despite his mighty talent, great education and immeasurable diligence, Kant could not solve all those philosophical problems that he himself set for himself. And this is known not only to us, enriched by the wealth of post-Kantian philosophical achievements. Kant himself realized this. And not only was he aware, but he was clearly rushing about between philosophical problems that he had not yet fully resolved. (In parentheses, we note that Kant was mistakenly convinced of the possibility of a satisfactory, scientific, solution to the problems of a philosophical worldview. At the same time, both he and we know that any unambiguously affirmed, be it a dual, indefinite or antinomic solution to a philosophical question, is in fact its solution .) Therefore, Kant was forced in his subsequent works or in subsequent editions of his works not only to make additions and corrections, but also to publicly renounce some of his philosophical statements. This is especially evident in the example of his solution to his main philosophical problem- problems of knowledge.

In the theory of knowledge (epistemology), Kant stood on the positions subjective idealism and agnosticism. But his subjective idealism, in contrast to classical subjective idealism, did not prevent him from recognizing the existence of things and phenomena independent of our consciousness. Kant's "Phenomenon" is essentially a subjective perception of things and phenomena external to a person's consciousness, and "Noumenon" is objective things in themselves (Dish an sich), regardless of whether a person perceives them or does not perceive them. And the recognition of things outside consciousness and independently of consciousness is no longer subjective idealism, not even idealism in general. This is pure materialism.

Kant's theory of knowledge makes human feelings not a connecting link between consciousness and the objective world, but a barrier between them. And Kant felt the break between feelings and reason affirmed by him, in addition to his own desire. An even greater separation from reality (reality, practice) was felt by Kant in his doctrine of the antinomies of pure reason, when he turned to a philosophical analysis of the problems of practical life in his Critique of Practical Reason. In this work, Kant wrote: "I am compelled here to limit the realm of pure reason in order to make room for faith." Kant's critics, especially Marxist-Leninists, seized on Kant's phrase to accuse him of digressing from the essence of his critique of the existence of God, that Kant supposedly believed in God himself. But all this is not so.

In his Critique of Pure Reason (1781), Kant recognized the antinomy of every "So" and "No" in relation to the ideas of pure reason (God, the Universe, Soul, meaning human life and so on). But in his Critique of Practical Reason, which he wrote later, he considers it expedient and useful to perceive some of the ideas of pure reason not by reason, but by faith. Faith in God, he said, is completely untenable from the point of view of science, knowledge, but in some aspects this faith can be useful in the practical life of a person and society. Isn't that right? The same can be said about the soul and the meaning of human life. In the field of morality - both according to Kant and ours - a person to a large extent must accept universal human principles of behavior and follow them without any preliminary theoretical proof. Moreover, allowing elements of faith in the process of cognition, Kant made the first attempt to admit practice into the field of cognition. In my personal opinion, Kant's idea of practice was continued, brilliantly developed and confirmed precisely in Marxist philosophy, the revolutionary upheaval of which, according to the Marxists themselves, consisted in the introduction of practice into cognition.

In propagating the ideas of pure reason, Kant showed himself to be a great humanist. He said that it is not God and not even society, but Man that stands above everything and above all. According to Kant, Man must always and constantly be the goal of himself and never a means for anything else (to achieve the goals of the whole society, to serve God, religion and the ruler, the boss). Considering the problems of morality a priori, he put forward his Maxim (Moral Maxim of Kant) to determine morality: "Act in such a way that the principles of your behavior can become the principle of universal human legislation."

Kant was one of the first to give a philosophical justification for the need for peaceful coexistence of all states and peoples of the world. He most convincingly and most vividly expressed this idea in his Treatise on Peace. Being a homebody, he actively joined in and by personal example contributed to the reconciliation of Germany and Russia, which at that time fought against each other; being a subject of Prussia, he belonged to all mankind and felt himself a citizen of the whole Earth.

4.e. Kant paid considerable attention to the problems of aesthetics. His ideas are still found and fruitfully operating in the golden fund of treasures of aesthetic thought. Being a great philosopher and great scientist, Kant put the measure of the genius of artists above the talent of all other figures. The genius of artists, according to Kant, lies in the fact. that they create something new from nothing, from their spirit and their own vision. If, for example, Cervantes had not written Don Quixote, and Shakespeare had not written his plays, then no one would ever have performed their work. As for scientists, they discover in nature only what others could have done without them.

Kant defined aesthetics as judgments about expediency without purpose. From this point of view, art is disinterested both in creation and in perception ("consumption").

10.03.2021

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