Major discoveries of the Enlightenment. Voltaire and three other great thinkers of the Enlightenment

The Age of Enlightenment is one of the most important eras in the history of European culture, characterized by the development of social, philosophical and scientific thought. This powerful ideological movement was based on free-thinking and rationalism, and the enlighteners saw knowledge as a powerful engine for the progress of all mankind.

Years of the Age of Enlightenment

The Enlightenment is a significant period in the history of the development of European society, which became a continuation of the humanistic ideas of the Renaissance. Enlighteners are outstanding scientists, thinkers and writers of their time, who in every possible way contributed to the spread of educational ideas among the people.

Enlightenment ideas originated at the end of the 17th century in England, under the influence of the scientific revolution. The founder of this trend was the English thinker John Locke, who in his writings covered the human rights to life, liberty, and private property. As a teacher, he gave great value education and upbringing of each person.

Rice. 1. John Locke.

The Enlightenment era reached its peak in France in the 18th century, and its ideas spread very quickly throughout Europe and Russia. This trend was a response to the deepening crisis of absolute monarchy and feudalism, which could no longer satisfy the needs of society.

In each country, the enlightenment movement had its own characteristics, but its tasks were common to all:

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• The struggle against feudalism and its basic concept.
• The struggle against the church - the most important pillar of the feudal system.
• Creation of an ideal model of society, which would be based on the principles of the bourgeoisie.

The response of tsarist Russia to educational ideas was the creation in 1802 of the Ministry of Public Education. Its main task was to carry out reforms in the educational system, to update all stages of the educational process.

Rice. 2. Ministry of Public Education.

Features of the culture of the Enlightenment

The main difference between the culture of the Age of Enlightenment is the availability of knowledge for all strata of society. Leading thinkers believed that only through the spread of education could many social problems be dealt with. This is rationalism - the dominance of reason in human behavior.

Enlightenment ideas are reflected in culture and science. Biology, chemistry, mathematics received special development. A distinctive feature of the scientific knowledge of the Enlightenment was the emphasis on their practical use in industrial and social development.

In the 18th century, music, literature and theater reached their peak. The best thinkers of the Enlightenment - Voltaire, Rousseau, Diderot, Alamber, Montesquieu - left behind literary works devoted to the ideas of humanism, freedom and equality.

Theater has become an incredibly popular art form. The theatrical stage became the arena in which the struggle of modern progressive thought with the hardened old foundations took place.

Rice. 3. Theater of the Enlightenment.

The most popular comedy of the 18th century was Beaumarchais's The Marriage of Figaro. This play reflected all the moods of society, which was extremely negative about the absolute monarchy.

The Age of Enlightenment had a huge impact on the development of society, creating all the prerequisites for scientific and technological progress. This period has gone down in history as the Silver Age.

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When studying the topic “Age of Enlightenment”, we learned how a new ideological trend arose in society and why the 18th century is called the Age of Enlightenment. We found out what the main idea of ​​the enlightenment movement was, how it influenced the development of scientific thought and art in Europe.

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Enlightenment is a necessary step in cultural development any country parting with the feudal way of life. It sees its main task in upbringing and education, in familiarizing everyone and everyone with knowledge. The Age of Enlightenment is one of the brightest in the development of philosophy and spiritual culture in Europe.

Main idea this era, it was equality of all people not only before God, but also before the laws, before other people. And the enlighteners saw the solution of this idea in the dissemination of knowledge. In the article "The Answer to the Question: What is the Enlightenment?" Immanuel Kant wrote:

Enlightenment is a person's exit from the state of his minority, in which he is through his own fault. Immaturity is the inability to use one's reason without guidance from someone else. Immaturity through one's own fault is one the cause of which lies not in a lack of reason, but in a lack of determination and courage to use it ...

Religion at that time seemed to enlighteners-atheists the enemy of man, therefore, in the Age of Enlightenment, the idea of ​​God as a great mechanic and the world as a huge mechanism became especially popular.

Thanks to the achievements of the natural sciences, the idea arose that the time of miracles and mysteries has passed, that all the secrets of the universe have been revealed, and the Universe and society are subject to logical laws accessible to the human mind. Mind Victory - second idea era.

third idea the Enlightenment became historical optimism.

The Age of Enlightenment can rightly be called the "golden age of utopia." Enlightenment primarily included a belief in the ability to change a person for the better, "rationally" transforming political and social foundations.

The Renaissance ideal of a free person acquires an attribute of universality and responsibility: a person of Enlightenment thinks not only about himself, but also about others, about his place in society.

The main centers of the Enlightenment were England, France, Germany. From 1689 - the year of the last revolution in England - the Age of Enlightenment begins. It was a glorious era, begun with one revolution and ending with three: industrial - in England, political - in France, philosophical and aesthetic in Germany. For a hundred years - from 1689 to 1789. - the world has changed. The remnants of feudalism eroded more and more, bourgeois relations, which were finally established after the Great French Revolution, were louder and louder.

Age of Enlightenment. Characteristics of the Enlightenment

18th century entered history as the age of the Enlightenment - a powerful ideological movement generated by the aggravated contradictions of the era and engulfing all of Europe. This ideological movement, being a continuation of the humanistic traditions of the Renaissance, originated in England at the end of the 17th century, and received its name and highest development in France in the 18th century. Its characteristic feature lies in the name itself; knowledge, enlightenment are considered by educators as a powerful lever of progress.

This was the era of the accelerated development of the capitalist economy and the growth of the economic power of the bourgeoisie, on the one hand, and the deepening crisis of feudalism and absolute monarchy, on the other. This contradiction reached its greatest aggravation in France.

The French bourgeoisie accumulated large capitals and became an influential economic force. It demanded the subordination of the economy to its interests and participation in the real management of the country.

But the clergy and nobility, having rallied around the court and fenced themselves off from the third estate with privileges, did not want any changes. The demands of the bourgeoisie were getting louder and louder. They are deeply reflected in the works of the greatest educators.

Leading representatives of the Enlightenment. Charles Louis Montesquieu (1689-1755) was born into an aristocratic French family but became a staunch opponent of absolutism. In his treatise On the Spirit of Laws (1748), he argued that the best form of government is a constitutional monarchy with popular representation in the form of parliament.

The largest representative of the French Enlightenment was Marie Francois Voltaire (1694-1779). Voltaire, like Montesquieu, convinced his contemporaries of the need to limit the absolute power of the king, eliminate the estate privileges of the clergy and nobility, and establish equality before the law. He was an implacable opponent catholic church because of her intolerance and wealth. Voltaire believed that the church as a religious organization is not needed, although faith in God is necessary. He called to "crush the vermin", that is, to destroy the church. But he stipulated that "if God did not exist, he would have to be invented," since it is impossible to manage at least one village, all the inhabitants of which would be unbelievers.

Voltaire and Montesquieu considered peaceful reforms and the spread of education to be the best way to improve society. Private property, in their opinion, should be preserved. This program was in line with the interests of the big bourgeoisie and the bourgeois nobility.

Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) was more determined. He saw private property as the source of all evil, but did not believe that it could be destroyed under existing conditions. Therefore, Rousseau proposed not to destroy, but to equalize property. Then, in his opinion, there will be neither poverty nor excessive wealth. This idea was shared by the broad masses of the country's population. As for the forms of state power, Rousseau considered the republic to be the best of them.

The publication of the Encyclopedia of Sciences, Arts and Crafts contributed to the spread of the ideas of the Enlighteners. The encyclopedia (35 volumes) has been published since 1751 under the direction of the French philosopher Denis Diderot.

Ideology of the Enlightenment. Despite the differences in the views of the enlighteners, they were united by the desire to improve the economic system and political system France.

Enlighteners argued the need for change by referring to the theory of natural law and popular sovereignty.

Since absolute royal power violates the natural, inalienable rights of people, the enlighteners argued, this power should be replaced by another power (a constitutional monarchy or a republic).

The people have the right to do this, since they are the only source of power (the theory of popular sovereignty). In this sense, this theory served as a tool in the ideological struggle against the defenders of absolute monarchy.

The ideology of the Enlightenment had a strong impact on Europe and America. The ideas of Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau were spread in the countries of Europe and America. In England, Germany, Austria, Spain, the USA and in many other states, their like-minded people appeared. The ideas of the Enlightenment had a significant impact on the development of European and American culture. Bourgeois in their essence (protection of private property), they were perceived as nationwide, as a program of the entire third estate. The bourgeoisie, workers, peasants could find in them a unifying principle.

Literature of the Enlightenment (general description).

The 18th century entered the history of European culture as the Age of Enlightenment. Enlightenment is a broad ideological movement, the content of which is determined primarily by a detailed merciless criticism of the feudal-absolutist order. In preparing this course, you should carefully study the main theoretical issues related to the general characteristics of the Enlightenment:

the socio-political program of the Western European Enlighteners, the general provisions of the Enlightenment philosophy and its contradictions. It is necessary to have a clear idea of ​​the main stages of the Enlightenment.

In the literature of the Enlightenment, a number of literary trends are developing: classicism, rococo, sentimentalism, pre-romanticism. A common characteristic feature of the literature of the Enlightenment is its desire to pose major social and state problems and deep philosophy. Therefore, its study should be based on a fairly broad understanding of the social, political and philosophical program of the Enlightenment.

literature of the Enlightenment (general characteristics).

the literature and culture of the 18th century date back to 1689, when the “glorious revolution” took place in England and the dynasty of Hanover reigned. The main political powers were transferred to Parliament. The European Enlightenment begins in England. The upper chronological boundaries of the period are the time of the Great French Revolution (1789 - 1794). The Napoleonic wars led to the activation of the third estate and the construction of a bourgeois system.

The Age of Enlightenment transformed public consciousness: there was a transition from the old estate thinking to the individual-personal. Class division hindered the development of society and the economy. In the 18th century, the transition of the economy to capitalist foundations begins, and the third estate, which is heterogeneous in structure, takes on the main role here. The social system is changing: an individual becomes its center. She builds her own destiny. This person has an empirical orientation of consciousness. He is attentive to the circumstances surrounding him, knows how to notice and analyze them. The first idea of ​​cause-and-effect relationships arises. There is also the problem of human relations with the environment. Metaphysical categories are replaced by detailed analysis. The man of this era has a wrestling character, since the conflicts of the era are inter-class in nature. During the 18th century, the ideals of transpersonal value were replaced by the ideals of civil society and human rights.

Within the framework of Catholicism, the direction of deism is formed. Deists believed that God is the creator of the world, not interfering in its existence. Out of deism comes atheism. Another direction - pietism - idealizes the "religion of the heart", proclaims the rejection of rational comprehension of the divine. Pietism especially developed in Germany.

Universals of the Enlightenment:

1. The idea of ​​enlightenment. The leading ability of man and driving force culture proclaims reason. This intelligence develops non-linearly. Knowledge can progress and regress. The slogan of the era is "Opinions rule the world."

2. The problem of education. You can change society by changing the consciousness of a particular person. This problem was posed by John Locke (An Essay on the Human Mind, 1690). Locke rejects Rene Descartes' postulate of innate ideas. A natural person is a state of harmony with the surrounding world. The state of nature was usually thought of as a good thing. But much more often, external reality interferes with a person, distorts his natural inclinations. Then we can talk about artificial education. At the same time, the egoism of a person is exacerbated. Enlighteners form a certain historiosophy: history is a series of lessons community development. Antiquity was considered natural, ideal, the Middle Ages - a regression, modern times - a return to the natural. History was supposed to end when the return to naturalness came. Consequently, history appeared from two sides: as a blessing leading to harmony, and as evil in its modern manifestation.

Ideologies for the development of the Enlightenment:

1. Rationalism. The leading force of education is logic, a narrow understanding of rationality. The rationalists aimed their pedagogical program at the formation of knowledge, the argumentation of provisions. This led to sketchiness in the literature. Popular genres are philosophical and allegorical story, tendentious drama.

2. Sensationalism. The formation of sensitivity. Paul Van Tiegem believed that the very word "sensibility" arose at the beginning of the 18th century, and for the century it was the most frequent word. The basis of personality is its emotional plan. The sensitivity of the 18th century varies greatly (chamber, aggressive, etc.).

The literary trends of the 18th century are rococo, classicism, sentimentalism and enlightened realism. Rococo manifests itself at the beginning of the century and arises as a result of the genesis of the development of classicism. Rococo was considered an aristocratic art, it was associated with chamber genres and refined life. In literature, it was associated with small forms and an abundance of various verbal decorations (poems for the occasion, experiments with the word, meter, rhythm). Rococo responded to themes of private, intimate life: for example, to love situations. Rococo is a culture of hedonism. In literature, Rococo manifested itself in the genres of sonnet, rondo, madrigal, story, fairy tale. Another area of ​​interest for Rococo is comedy. The most famous playwright of the Rococo era is Marivaux.

Aesthetics of Enlightenment classicism are Pope, Gottsched, Voltaire, Batteux, La Harpe. The aesthetics of the direction was based on ancient samples, but the themes and genre forms were oriented towards the actual content. Enlightenment classicism is also called allusive, since the plot is taken from classical history, focused on modernity, but there is no talk of historicism. Historicism is the recognition behind each era of originality. There is a clash of opinions and genres. Boundary genres like the philosophical story emerge. There is an experimental probing of the social conditions of life. Enlightenment classicism has very sharp, melodramatic conflicts. The genre of tragedy with bloody plots is widely used. Emotionality replaces psychologism, which is simplified, replaced by one passion. Enlightenment classicism provides options in the epic sphere. The genre of the poem is developing with its variants: philosophical, historical. A parody comprehension of the epic poem is Voltaire's Virgin of Orleans.

A modification of enlightenment classicism was revolutionary classicism, which originated during the years of the revolution. It was a game of republican forms and antique scenery. Revolutionary classicism puts forward the interests of society. Power appears mercenary and unfair.

In Germany in the 1780s - 1790s. "Weimar Classicism" appears. Schiller, Goethe, Herder and Willand worked in the city of Weimar. Weimar classicism rethinks the attitude towards antiquity. The ancient Greeks and Romans identified the laws of art as the ideal harmony of form and content. Historicism is formed in "Weimar Classicism". Herder recognized the originality of each era. The leading plots of Schiller and Goethe are historical. Harmonious genres based on synthesis were suitable for artistic experiments. Elements of the epic penetrated the dramaturgy. This synthesis gave rise to Goethe's Faust.

Enlightenment realism was no less significant. His classical country was England, which gave birth to a whole galaxy of authors. In France, the leading representative of the direction was Denis Diderot, in Germany - the authors of "Sturm und Drang". Realists paid attention to empirical reality. Literature aimed to describe the ordinary person in its entirety. Completeness implied a rejection of the distinction between high and low. The authors were interested in middle-level situations. Their heroes usually represented the middle class and the provinces. Representatives of this literary movement were the first to raise the question of the essence of the human personality. In the aesthetics of enlightenment realism, a transformative attitude is manifested. Hence the obvious element of edification. The idea of ​​a person as a complex dialectical being takes root. Among the genres, prose, the novel, and petty-bourgeois drama come to the fore. Denis Diderot showed the theoretical foundations of the petty-bourgeois drama. Poorly developed lyrics. Of the poets, only Robert Burns stood out, who introduced elements of folklore into poetry.

Sentimentalism was formed in England in the 1720s - 1730s. Initially, it is formed in the lyrics, in the work of Thompson, Gray and Jung. By the middle of the 18th century, sentimentalism also extended to prose (Goldsmith, Stern). Sentimentalists focused on the game of psychology. This is an intellectual game, a change of associations. Ideas in it unfold not according to the laws of logic. Inferences are born on an emotional-figurative basis. The plot and story becomes complex. Within the framework of sentimentalism, the hero becomes contradictory to the point of capriciousness. In the works of sentimentalism, we are talking about an internal conflict. This is a clash of psychological states, a struggle of passions or an external, class, conflict. In Germany, the representatives of "storm and stress" have their own version of sentimentalism with the highest level of emotionality.

"Culture of the Enlightenment" - The hero of the work shows the best human qualities: diligence, enterprise. William Hogarth, Vote Bribing, 1754, (detail). Around Beauvais. Prepare a presentation for the group. “The time has come to compare the times” N.Ya. Eidelman. Artistic culture of Europe during the Enlightenment. Oath of the Horatii.

"Age of Enlightenment 18th century" - Kingdom of Reason (common good). Age of Enlightenment (XVIII century). Choose 3 basic (natural, inalienable) rights: People. Astronomy Medicine Physics Mathematics. Republic. Limited monarchy. Scientific discoveries 17th century Reformation Renaissance. social contract. N. Copernicus I. Newton G. Galileo W. Harvey D. Bruno R. Descartes.

"The War of Independence in the United States" - 1. First Continental Congress. During the War of Independence (1775-1783) he commanded the colonial troops. 3. What are the differences in the development of the economy of the colonies of New England and the Southern colonies? 2. Fill in the table "Constitution of 1787" in your notebook. Creation of the United States of America. 5. Results and significance of the war.

"The policy of enlightened absolutism" - Reforms K. Mavrokordat. The policy of enlightened absolutism in the countries of Europe. Politics of enlightened absolutism. Reforms of Maria Theresa and Joseph II. The beginning of the glorious deeds of Peter. Friedrich II. Catherine II. Conclusions. Konstantin Mavrocordat. Europe at the beginning of modern times. Criteria for evaluating oral communication.

"Independence in the USA" - The Stamp Act was openly unfair to Americans. Battle of Saratoga. FIRST CONTINENTAL CONGRESS 1774. But the whole of America stood behind Massachusetts: other Legislative Assemblies had to be dissolved. Organizations calling themselves the Sons of Liberty began to appear in almost all the colonies.

"US War of Independence" - Causes: lack of weapons, ammunition, uniforms. Creation of the United States of America (USA). September 3, 1783-. July 4, 1776 Declaration of Independence. Military operations 1776-1777 Washington and Lafayette. England was defeated, the young state of the USA won. 1781 Decisive Battle of Yorktown.

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Scientific revolution of the 17th century: stages, directions, scientists, achievements

Scientific revolution of the 17th century: stages, trends, scientists,

Achievements

In the 17th century there have been changes that began as early as the Renaissance, when old authorities and scientific theories were overthrown. There were shifts that crushed the old science, divorced from technical practice, and created the prerequisites for a powerful upsurge of a new culture. Man's knowledge of the world has significantly expanded, Galileo laid the foundations of a new worldview. In his attitude to the surrounding world, a person could no longer rely on faith in God, and was forced to rely on his own mind. The era of rationalism and a critical attitude to reality began, which was called the New Age.

Science has ceased to be the privilege of the clergy, there are scientific institutions of a new type - academies. In the 17th century scientists sought to synthesize observation and mathematical calculation, technology and science. F. Bacon gave a definition of inductive and deductive methods of proof. The new scientific method used at that time was based on a rational generalization of the results of experiments set to test previously put forward hypotheses, the process of establishing science as the dominant form of comprehension of being begins. This profound transformation of science is called the scientific revolution.

A revolution in science is a period in the development of science, during which old scientific ideas are partially or completely replaced by new ones, new theoretical premises, methods, material means, assessments and interpretations appear that are poorly or completely incompatible with old ideas. The “scientific revolution” is the period of time approximately from the date of publication of the work of N. Copernicus “On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres” (1543) to the activity of I. Newton, whose work “The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy” was published in 1687.

The content of the "scientific revolution" lies in the fact that scientists make discoveries in various fields of science, that is, they establish previously unknown patterns, properties and phenomena of the material world, making changes in the level of knowledge. The scientific revolution was made possible by the dynamic development of a society that had already achieved technological progress. Firearms, gunpowder, and ocean-crossing ships enabled Europeans to discover, explore, and map much of the world, and the invention of printing meant that any information was made available to scientists across the continent. Beginning in the 16th century, the relationship between society, science, and technology became ever closer, as progress in one area of ​​knowledge spurred development on others.

Symbols social progress in the 17th century become bourgeois revolutions. Under the influence of revolutionary transformations, changes occur in the economy, politics, social relations, and consciousness. Manufactory production, the rapid growth of world trade, navigation, the interests of military affairs determined the main vector of the development of science. The need for scientific research of applied, practical importance is becoming more and more evident.

The bourgeois revolution in England made capitalist manufacture the dominant form of production and influenced the industrial and technical development of the feudal European states. In economic and technical terms, Tue. floor. 17th century England, while maintaining the manufacture, could not come forward, despite its advanced social system. However, only in this country at that time there were favorable conditions for the emergence and development of technology, and the conditions for the technical and industrial revolution had already taken shape, after which it became the most technically and industrially advanced country in the world.

The ruling circles, striving for military and economic dominance, provided patronage to scientists and support for research activities. State policy in relation to science is manifested in the formation of academies of sciences, scientific societies. Significant role in European science of the XVII century. played by the Royal Society of London. Members of the society were R. Boyle, the founder of chemistry and physics of modern times, and I. Newton, the author of the theory of motion of celestial bodies. The leading branch of science is becoming mechanics - the science of the movement of bodies, which played a huge role in shaping the philosophical and worldview views of the 17th century.

By the 17th century science has come a long way in its development. In addition to the telescope, instruments such as the microscope, thermometer, barometer, and air pump were invented. European science has reached new frontiers. Advanced thinkers, having explored the Universe with the help of instruments, drew a completely new picture the universe and the place of mankind in it.

With the exception of a few discoveries, during the late Middle Ages, scientific thought was inferior in development to technological inventions. In the XVI-XVII centuries. there is a process of improving the designs of water and wind engines. To compensate for the unevenness of force in water, hand and windmills, and in general in mechanisms that are in rotational motion, in the first floor. 17th century flywheel was introduced. This invention contributed to the further development of mechanics and engineering. At the beginning of the XVII century. wooden bellows powered by a water wheel were invented. In 1620, such furs were installed at the metallurgical enterprises in the Harz.

A real technical revolution in the ferrous metallurgy was the transition from the raw iron production method to a two-stage one - to the smelting of cast iron in blast furnaces, followed by its critical redistribution into steel and iron. Critical redistribution corresponded to the manufactory production of iron, which involved the participation in the production of several workers, between whom there was a division of labor. By the first half of the XVII century. metalworking tools have been improved. Now large forges were built to forge metal into rods or sheets using mechanical lever hammers driven by water wheels. The shaft of the water wheel had fists that raised the hammers, which, when free falling, made a blow. The use of mechanical force in blacksmithing contributed to the specialization of tools. Lathes began to be widely used, in which the workpiece was rotated by a water wheel, but the cutter was held in the hands of a worker.

Science studied the nature and laws of the universe. Advanced ideas often met with fierce resistance. In particular, new theories came into conflict with religious dogmas in explaining natural phenomena, which were considered unacceptable to question.

To determine what caused the scientific revolution of the 17th century, and what it consisted of, it is not enough to list the results and achievements of science. Since many of the new ideas were put forward in part or in whole in the times preceding the scientific revolution, and, nevertheless, did not then have a decisive influence on the development of science. For example, the concept of the infinity of the Universe, which is considered one of the main results of the scientific revolution, was put forward by N. Kuzansky 100 years earlier than Copernicus and did not have any impact on scientists at that time.

The formation of a new science. There are three stages in the formation of the natural science of modern times: the first is associated with the activities of Galileo Galilei, the second - with the name of Rene Descartes and the third - with Isaac Newton.

Galileo's theory is based on four axioms: free movement along a horizontal plane occurs with a constant speed in magnitude and direction (the law of inertia); a freely falling body moves with constant acceleration; A body sliding without friction on an inclined plane moves with constant acceleration. Galileo also derived the principle of relativity and the formula for motion, the trajectory of a projectile. Galileo's experiments were continued by his student Torricelli, who discovered vacuum, atmospheric pressure and created the first barometer.

Rene Descartes - the founder of the philosophy of the New Age - was a typical representative of iatrophysics, a direction in natural science, where living nature is considered from the standpoint of physics. The main conclusions of Descartes were the following provisions: there is no emptiness in the world, the Universe is filled with constantly moving matter, matter and space are one and the same, there is no absolute movement and an absolute frame of reference. Descartes was the first to represent curves as graphs of functions and created analytic geometry. He introduced the rules of mathematical proof into science, insisted on the need to prove any statement. When asked to prove that he exists, Descartes replied: "I think, therefore I exist."

The revolution in science was completed by Newton with a theory that became the foundation of classical natural science. Newton proved the existence of gravity as a universal force, combined the laws of Galileo, Kepler and the philosophy of Descartes into a single theory. Newton found that the planets are held in their orbits by a force that is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the Sun; mathematically deduced the elliptical shape of planetary orbits and the change in their velocities. Another discovery of Newton was the law of universal gravitation, in the proof of which he used the formula of centrifugal force, obtained earlier by Huygens. With the help of three laws of motion - the law of inertia, the law of acceleration and the law of equal opposition - and the law of universal gravitation, Newton explained the ebb and flow of the sea, the trajectory of projectiles, the orbits of the planets. Confirmation was found for Descartes' ideas that nature is a perfectly ordered mechanism that obeys mathematical laws.

The invention of the telescope contributed to the growth of popularity and new discoveries in astronomy. The name of the first inventor of the telescope is not known. In 1609, Galileo improved the telescope and lenses and achieved a 30-fold increase: mountains on the Moon, phases of Venus, satellites of Jupiter were discovered, it was proved that the Milky Way is not fog, but a cluster of stars. In 1668 Newton made the first mirror telescope. In 1682, E. Halley discovered the first periodic comet, which received his name.

In addition to astronomical objects, scientists were also interested in the microscopic world. Antoine Leeuwenhoek used the first simple microscope to study microorganisms. During his life, the scientist made more than 400 devices. In addition to the microflora of rainwater, Leeuwenhoek studied the structure of plant cells, gave the first description of red blood cells and the methods of movement and reproduction in some protozoa. Robert Hooke, using an improved microscope, studied the structure of plants and introduced the term "cell". One of the founders of microscopic anatomy was M. Malpighi, who studied animal anatomy and botany; he completed the theory of blood circulation begun by the English physician W. Harvey.

Scientists were interested in the study of vacuum. In the second half of the XVII century. Frenchman Blaise Pascal established the basic law of hydrostatics: the pressure on the surface of a liquid, produced by external forces, is transmitted by the liquid equally in all directions. Pascal climbed a mountain with a barometer and found that as he climbed, atmospheric pressure dropped. The German Otto Guernicke and the Englishman Robert Boyle almost simultaneously invented the air pump. Boyle also established that the volume occupied by a gas is inversely proportional to pressure (Boyle-Mariotte law).

In mathematics, there is a separation of trigonometry and analytic geometry, the formation of differential and integral calculus, and theories of infinitesimal quantities are being developed. The Scottish mathematician D. Napier invented logarithms, which helped speed up calculations, with the help of logarithms, the orbit of Mars was calculated. B. Pascal in 1641 designed a summing machine for the mechanization of the processes of addition and subtraction. In 1667, G. Leibniz invented a calculating machine that allows you to subtract, add, divide, multiply, and extract square roots.

Advances in the field of mathematics, the emergence of computers are due to the improvement of watch mechanisms. Even at the end of the XVI century. Galileo discovered the phenomenon of isochronous oscillations of a physical pendulum, but a real revolution in watchmaking was made by H. Huygens, who in 1657 created the first pendulum clock. Huygens used the pendulum as a stroke regulator, and also invented a balancer with a spiral and an anchor escapement.

During the scientific revolution came to grips with chemistry. In the 17th century in France textbooks on chemistry began to be printed, chemistry began to be taught at medical faculties. In Switzerland, Paracelsus proposed a model of three principles - sulfur, mercury and salt, which influenced the development of chemistry and pharmacy. In the second half of the XVII century. some new substances were discovered, for example, phosphorus. In England, R. Boyle applied to the analysis of the structure of matter atomistic theory, his experiments with air contributed to the emergence of "pneumatic chemistry" and the creation of the chemical science of modern times. He also developed an experimental method in chemistry, in particular, chemical analysis. Boyle developed the idea that chemical interaction occurs between the smallest particles - corpuscles. The corpuscles that make up the bodies remain unchanged during various transformations of these bodies. In Germany, Johann Becher developed the doctrine of the three types of earth, and Francis Silvius and Otto Tachenius created the theory of acid-base interactions and applied it in "medical chemistry".

17th century was characterized by an appeal to the science of the nobility. Scientific work began to be conducted collectively, which contributed to the emergence of scientific organizations of a new type. At the beginning of the XVII century. in Italy there are several associations of scientists who call themselves academies, for example, the Florentine Academy. In 1660, the College for the Development of Physical and Mathematical Experimental Knowledge appeared in London, later transformed into the Royal Society of London. The successes of scientists attracted the attention of kings and ministers. In 1666, Louis XIV's minister Colbert persuaded the king to sponsor the creation of the French Academy of Sciences. The Academy had an observatory, a library and research laboratories, and a scientific journal was published. Colbert set practical tasks for the Academy: the degree of the meridian was measured and an accurate map of France was drawn up. H. Huygens developed the wave theory of light, where light was considered as an elastic impulse propagating in a special medium - ether. Huygens' student D. Papen worked on the creation of a steam engine.

The humanities develop in the context of the rationalistic worldview. Bourgeois revolutions influenced the development political thought. The theory of “natural law” was born and formed, which developed the idea that state power and law were not given from above, but created by people in accordance with the laws of reason. Requirements human mind come from the nature of people and form the basis of "natural law". Natural law must correspond to "positive law", that is, the laws of the state. The theory of natural law was developed in the works of B. Spinoza, T. Hobbes and J. Locke. Legal sciences are marked by the beginning of the formation of the concept of social contract and rule of law(T. Hobbes, J. Locke), principles of international law (G. Grotius).

In philosophy, the dominance of rationalism aroused interest in questions of epistemology (the theory of knowledge). Two main methods of cognition were formed: empirical (F. Bacon) and rationalistic (Leibniz, Descartes).

At the end of the XVII century. in European culture, the ideology of the Enlightenment arose, preaching the priority of science, reason in the life of the individual, society and the state, the idea of ​​​​educating a perfect person. The ideas of the Enlightenment were most developed in France.

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One of the results of the scientific revolution of the XVII century. there was a combination of production and handicraft and technical activities with the traditions of ancient and medieval science. The basis of the method of cognition is the logical conclusion from hypotheses and its verification with the help of experience. It was a period of upheaval and rethinking, the rise of new scientific knowledge. Science is reaching a qualitatively new level in connection with the emergence of scientific organizations, becoming secular and accessible.

The greatest achievement of the scientific revolution was the collapse of the antique-medieval picture of the world. The change in the picture of the world led to changes in science, new features of the worldview were formed, a new natural science ideology appeared. According to this ideology, the following ideas were cultivated in science: nature is self-sufficient and controlled by natural laws; the world is presented as a machine, consisting of elements of different importance; all phenomena in the world are explainable by natural causes based on the laws of mechanics; The universe is boundless, homogeneous and governed by uniform laws. New ideas and a new worldview served to establish a new science, free from church ideology and aimed at serving man.

Science has gained great prestige in society, discoveries and inventions began to be actively introduced into economic life. A person began to understand that scientific knowledge has a leading potential, that this is the basis of future scientific and technological progress. Before the eyes of contemporaries, science was being transformed into a productive force. They begin to see in it the basis of transformation and domination over the world.

The Age of Enlightenment and the Birth of Modern Science

The name of this era was given by the activity of the French philosophers-encyclopedists, who were engaged in bringing science to the masses, enlightening society. The 18th century is called the "age of reason" or the age of Enlightenment. It was science that played leading role in the activities of French enlighteners and philosophers. The laws of science and rationalism formed the basis of their theoretical concepts of the new world. The turning point was the publication of the Encyclopedia, or explanatory dictionary Sciences, Arts and Crafts" (1751-1780), edited by Diderot and d'Alembert. Among the employees were the most influential representatives of French science: Voltaire, Montesquieu, Mably, Helvetius, Holbach.

The most important feature of the Enlightenment was the belief in the universality of the scientific mind, in the fact that not only the laws of nature can be comprehended by man, but also the laws of social development. The industrial revolution and the growth of technical inventions begin, and the historical process of transition from feudalism to capitalism develops with increasing speed. A new ideology is being formed, the foundations of an industrial society are being formed. Christian church lost control of people's minds, and religious outlook recedes into the background.

The development of scientific thought in the XVIII century. associated with mathematization and expansion of the experimental basis of natural science. The differentiation of sciences is intensifying, independent directions appear in mathematics and physics, as an independent science, chemistry arises. The period under review includes the formation of technical sciences, in particular applied or practical mechanics, which studies the operation of machines, mechanisms and structures. The production of technical literature also contributed to the development of technical knowledge.

Natural and humanitarian directions in science. Influenced by the works of I. Newton in natural science in the XVIII century. classical mechanics, the theory of the movement of liquids, the theory of the movement of gases (aerodynamics) are being formed. The mechanistic picture of the world is formed by the atomistic or corpuscular theory, according to which nature is perceived as a kind of mechanism, consisting of a huge number of isolated material bodies that enter into elementary connections and are subject to simple laws; the laws of mechanics are regarded as universal.

A separate direction of technical thought is associated with the creation of experimental instruments necessary for scientific research. The appearance of such devices stimulated scientific discoveries and theories. For example, the invention of a clock with a pendulum by H. Huygens in 1657 became the basis for the creation of automatic computing devices.

In mathematics, K. Gauss developed the theory of variables and the graphic representation of functions. P. Laplace introduced the principle of "iron determinism": equal actions in equal conditions always lead to the same results; this meant that scientists in their experiments and experiments will always be able to repeat any natural phenomenon. The beginning was laid for the transformation of mechanics from a geometric science into an analytical science. Jean-Baptiste d'Alembert developed the "d'Alembert principle", which is a method for solving problems of dynamics, characterized by a state of non-equilibrium of forces, conditionally reduced to an equilibrium state. With the help of his "principle", d'Alembert solved the collision problem and performed calculations of the precession of the equinoxes and nutation earth's axis(The precession of the equinox is the movement of the equinoxes along the equator; nutation is the movement along the longitude or oscillation of the earth's axis with a period of 18 years).

The study of thermal phenomena, and then experimenting with heat engines, required the creation of special instruments for measuring temperatures. One of the first such devices, the "thermoscope", was created by G. Galileo. In the XVIII century. the temperature scale was invented, there are several types of it: the scale of D. Fahrenheit, the scale of R. Reaumur and A. Celsius. The scale invented by the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius is still used today. He proposed a centigrade scale with the point "0" corresponding to the boiling of water, and the point "100" corresponding to its freezing. A new direction of research was the measurement of heat, the conduct of experiments confirming the appearance of heat during friction.

E. Toricelli's discovery of the existence of atmospheric pressure and vacuum became possible with the help of the mercury barometer invented by him in 1644. The German engineer O. Gerricke invented the air pump and proved the presence of atmospheric pressure.

One of the areas of research was atmospheric electrical phenomena. The American activist and scientist B. Franklin noted the similarity between an electric spark and lightning. In 1752, he came up with a way to protect buildings from lightning using a lightning rod. Russian scientists also worked in this area, for example, M.V. Lomonosov, who was the first to show the presence of electricity in the atmosphere in the absence of a thunderstorm.

Conducting experiments with electricity required the creation of a number of devices, for example, the "Leyden jar" - an electric capacitor invented in 1745 by the Dutch scientist P. Mushenbrook. G.V. Richman, with the help of a "thunder machine", was able to light oil, charge a Leyden jar, and electrify himself. He also invented the electrometer, an instrument used to measure electrical quantities quantitatively. Research in the field of the theory of electricity was continued by Franz Ulrich Theodor Aepinus, who discovered the phenomenon of electrization of a conductor from one approximation of an electrified body and discovered the phenomenon of electrization of tourmaline when heated. Charles Augustin Coulomb created the foundations of electrostatics. In the course of studying the torsion of thin metal threads, he built the thinnest experimental device - a torsion balance that serves to measure small forces.

Discoveries in the field of astronomy became possible thanks to the invention and improvement of the telescope. With the help of the invented telescopic system, which consisted of two lenses, one convex and one plano-concave (eyepiece), Galileo discovered the satellites of Jupiter, the mountains on the Moon, and the structure of the Milky Way. In 1668, I. Newton invented a mirror reflecting telescope, with which one could see the satellites of Jupiter. H. Huygens created good quality spotting scopes and discovered the rings of Saturn, the bands on Jupiter, and nebulae in the constellation Orion.

In the XVIII century. astronomical science enriched by the concepts of I. Kant and P. Laplace on the emergence of the Earth and the solar system as a whole from a gas and dust nebula and on the influence of the phases of the moon on the tides. Kant put forward a hypothesis about the similarity and homology of the solar and stellar systems. Outstanding achievements in the field of observational and mathematical astronomy were the studies of W. Herschel, who discovered double stars and their orbits.

In optics, the main areas of research were the development of the principles of photometry (the problem of measuring the "amount of light"). There is an assertion of two main hypotheses about the nature of light: wave and corpuscular. However, there were no decisive scientific arguments in favor of any theory. So, Newton leaned towards the corpuscular idea, and Leibniz, Lomonosov towards the wave theory.

At the end of the XVIII century. scientific chemistry arose and this is the merit of Antoine Laurent Lavoisier, the founder of the quantitative method of research. Formerly, matter was thought to be composed of four elements: fire, air, water, and earth. In 1789, Lavoisier experimentally proved the law of conservation of matter. Investigating atmospheric air, water and other chemical compounds, Lavoisier found out their chemical nature. The name of Lavoisier is associated with a scientific revolution in chemistry. He revised the issue of the composition of air and introduced a new classification of substances, he divided all compounds into three categories: acids, bases and salts. Another achievement of Lavoisier was the proof of the inconsistency of the old theory about the movement of phlogiston in nature. After conducting a series of experiments, he concluded that combustion and oxidation are not processes of decreasing phlogiston, but processes with the addition of oxygen, which is an oxidizing agent. The basis for such conclusions was the exact weighing procedures.

Later, John Dalton proposed the atomistic theory of the structure of matter, according to which each element has its own atom. He argued that the atoms of different substances have different weights, and chemical compounds are formed by a combination of atoms in certain numerical ratios. Dalton also revealed patterns in the combination of atoms of various kinds and explained the properties of gases by mutual repulsion from atoms.

The main achievement in biology was the creation of a unified biological classification, authored by K. Linnaeus. The first holistic concept of evolution was proposed by Zh-B. Lamarck coined the term "biology". The real application of the results of scientific research was demonstrated by the doctor E. Jenner, who was the first to use vaccination to prevent smallpox. He was able to empirically achieve the development of human immunity against smallpox.

It develops as an independent field of science and geology, which studies the structure, mineral composition and history of the Earth. The major shifts in this area occurred during the Enlightenment, when M. V. Lomonosov laid the foundation for the evolutionary direction and the comparative historical method in geology. True, the church tried to defend the biblical myth of the creation of the Earth, but the idea of ​​geological time was initiated.

In the XVIII century. in the field of the humanities, the ideas of the Enlightenment are affirmed. The French Enlightenment philosophers Voltaire, Montesquieu, Diderot, Rousseau believed that it was enough to establish reasonable, rational laws and the development of society would immediately change in better side. Famous educators of Britain were J. Locke, I. Geder, G. Lessing, in Germany - I. Goethe, I. Kant, F. Schiller. The ideology of the Enlightenment suffered from speculative reasoning, the desire to adjust reality to ready-made theoretical schemes. However, the philosophers of the Enlightenment played a huge role in the rationalization and modernization of legislation; elimination of feudal vestiges; creation of a new education system without class restrictions. The construction was started secular state based on tolerance. In addition, the philosophy of the Enlightenment, with its emphasis on logic and theoretical reasoning, contributed to the acceleration of the development of science.

Education played an important role in the formation and development of science. The beginning of a new education was the creation of engineering schools, in France the School of Bridges and Roads and the School of Military Engineers were opened. Scientific and technical education was given by the Paris Polytechnic School, where. For the first time, lecture and educational literature on mechanics, mathematics and physics was developed.

The development of legal science is associated with the continuation of the formation of the concept of the rule of law. It should be noted the contribution of such scientists and politicians as C. Beccaria (development of the principle of the rule of law), Voltaire, C. Montesquieu (the principle of separation of powers), etc.

The economic thought of this period was marked by the creation of the foundations economic theory in the works of physiocrats (F. Quesnay, R. Turgot) and the founders of classical political economy (A. Smith, D. Ricardo).

Scientific discoveries and production. The mechanization of labor covered all types of production, including textiles. Accordingly, the technical sciences, which are various branches of mechanics, actively continued to develop under the influence of the demands of technology. So, for example, ballistics satisfied the needs of artillery, and the resistance of materials appeared as a result of the development of mechanical engineering and construction, hydraulics solved problems that arose during the development of construction. At the same time, two ways of formation of technical sciences were revealed. One path led to the subsequent branch of one or another applied discipline, an example of which is external ballistics. Another path led to the gradual formation of the corresponding theoretical field of mechanics, for example, the science of the strength of materials and the theory of elasticity.

The beginning of the Industrial Revolution in the 18th century, which began in England, can be considered in direct proportion to the development of scientific knowledge, embodied in practice. The first sprouts of the industrial revolution were innovations in textile production, in which the mechanical “airplane” shuttle first appeared, invented by D. Kay in 1733. This significantly accelerated the process and made it possible to weave a wide fabric. An even more significant contribution to the textile industry was the invention in 1765 of the "Jenny" mechanical spinning wheel by James Hargreaves. Mechanic K. Wood improved the spinning machine, and R. Arkwright created a water-powered water machine, which made it possible to obtain a stronger thread. As a result, in 1786 appeared loom with full mechanization of all manual operations.

Since the invention of the universal heat engine, i.e. steam engine, the second stage of the industrial revolution begins. The need for more powerful energy sources led to the creation of a new type of machine, and already to late XVIII in. water engines were replaced by a steam engine. It had a universal purpose and allowed not only to pump out water from mines, but also set machine tools in motion.

The very first steam engines appeared in the 17th century, their purpose was to raise water. Such a machine was the installation of the English engineer Thomas Savery. The boiler in Severi's car was separated from the engine, combined with a pump, the piston and cylinder were not in the car. Separating the boiler from the engine increased the efficiency of the installation and was an important step towards the creation of a steam engine.

Later, a workable steam-atmospheric machine by the English engineer T. Newcomen (1712) appeared. Its design was refined, improved, as it was bulky and consumed a huge amount of fuel. At first, the steam boiler was separated from the cylinder and connected to it by a tube, and in 1718 G. Bayton improved the machine: he automated the processes of alternate start-up of steam and water, and supplied the boiler with a safety valve.

The palm for the creation of the first universal-purpose engine - a two-cylinder steam engine - belongs to the Russian inventor-heat engineer Ivan Polzunov in 1763. This was a real scientific approach: Polzunov was familiar not only with the description of Severi and Newkman machines, but also with the works of M. V. Lomonosov in heat engineering. Polzunov clearly formulated the task of creating a universal heat engine, and was able to create it. Scottish technician J. Watt created a steam engine in 1765, which marked the beginning of the industrial revolution.

The revolution in production was the improvement of drilling and turning machines, the invention of the caliper and the separation of the drive from the machine, the introduction of the drive from the water wheel, the emergence of horizontal boring machines and machines for deep drilling. In 1794, Henry Maudsley invented the "cross support", representing two carriages that can move independently in two mutually perpendicular directions with the help of a screw. Maudsley was the first to combine machine tools into one production line.

A number of industries developed solely on the basis of the achievements of scientific thought, for example, the chemical industry. The production of chemicals, which were needed by various types of production, provided the needs for sulfuric acid, soda, chlorine, etc. These substances were used to make glass, explosives, paints, bleaches, pharmaceuticals and a number of other products.

The development of industry required new knowledge in the field of mechanics, mathematics, geometry, physics, chemistry, etc. Success in the improvement of firearms, the development of transport, trade and the entire economy now depended on the success of industrial production.

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Rise and flourish scientific knowledge was prepared by previous eras, when advanced ideas were gradually accumulated and preserved. It can be said that modern science and technology are the result of the creative efforts of both the West and the East. Among other reasons that caused the restructuring of European society was the desacralization of many spheres of life. Instead of the Christian religious ideology, the secular one, with its own values ​​and priorities, takes the lead. As one of the fundamental values ​​of the new Europe is the idea of ​​progress and the possibility of rational development of the world. Science is freed from theology and theological attitudes. Instead of biblical explanations of the nature of the world, a new research technique comes when the method of scientific approach to natural phenomena has been adopted in its entirety.

Science is gradually acquiring the status of a productive force, as well as a social force that regulates the management of diverse social processes. The systematic application of scientific knowledge in production leads to technical and then scientific and technological revolutions, which change the attitude of man to nature and the production system.

Thus, in Europe in the XVIII century. there is a rapid development of the natural and human sciences, which was largely facilitated by the accelerated capitalist development of the most developed countries in the economic sphere and the dominance of the ideology of the Enlightenment with its rationalism in the spiritual sphere. In connection with the fall of the influence of the church, there were no more obstacles to the development of science. The rapid improvement and development of engineering and technology created the prerequisites for the industrial revolution, the beginning of which is associated with an invention in England in the 60s. 18th century steam engine J. Watt.