The doctrine of Democritus about atoms can be characterized as. Democritus - and his atomistic theory

In the natural-philosophical period of the development of ancient philosophy, the first atomistic teachings of Democritus and Leucippus were created. Atomists believed that everything in the world consists of the smallest, further indivisible particles - atoms.

Democritus was a student of the great physician and philosopher Ancient Greece- Hippocrates. He created the first most famous atomistic doctrine, in which he offered his understanding of the structure of nature.

Democritus believed that there are atoms and emptiness. Democritus believed that all things consist of the smallest immutable, eternally existing particles (atoms), which are unlimited in number. Atoms have a certain weight, shape, volume. Atoms move in different directions. Earth, water, air, fire are the primary groupings of atoms. Combinations of atoms form whole worlds: in infinite space there are an infinite number of worlds. Atoms are homogeneous, indivisible and unchanging. There are atoms of matter, atoms of space (amers), atoms of time (chronons). Each body consists of a certain number of atoms, each of which has a finite volume, therefore the body also has a finite volume. Man is also a collection of atoms. The human soul is made up of special atoms.

Democritus identifies the causality of phenomena and necessity, i.e. the reason is necessity. No thing comes into being without a cause, but everything comes into being on some basis by necessity. Chance is only "a reason unknown to the human mind, and the ancients, in inducing the true causes of phenomena, attributed them either to fate or to the gods, when these phenomena seemed to them especially formidable and majestic. According to Democritus, everything is based on a natural principle. An endless chain of causes and consequences creates an inevitable necessity.Everything happens according to this inevitable necessity, there is no chance.

The atomistic theory of Democritus extends to the interpretation of knowledge. According to Democritus, the process of cognition consists in the perception by a person of the influence of bodies on him through the corresponding sense organs. This influence is manifested in the form of expiration from the surface of all things copies - the smallest and subtlest images of these things. Penetrating into the human body, the images of things come into contact with the atoms of the soul and evoke in him a corresponding sensation of the external world. Democritus does not see the connection between the sensory level of knowledge and rational reasoning, sharply separates and opposes them to each other. True knowledge, according to Democritus, is achieved only by reason.

Ancient atomism was the result of reflection on certain philosophical questions. He absorbed earlier philosophical ideas. The new ideas that arose within the framework of the atomistic theory contained the virtues of the old ones, and in such a way that the previous failures disappear. Another philosophical achievement of the atomists is the discovery of the atomic, the elementary. Whatever we are dealing with - with a physical phenomenon or theory - there is always an elementary element: an atom (in chemistry), a gene (in biology), a material point (in mechanics), etc. The elementary appears as unchanging, not in need of explanation.

Thus, in ancient Greek philosophy of the early, natural-philosophical period, in the first place is the sensual-material cosmos, which is explored in the form of its material elements. The soul and the sphere of the spiritual are almost not considered, they are in the background of philosophical reflections.

If numerous legends spoke of Heraclitus as a weeping philosopher, then of Democritus, on the contrary, as a laughing philosopher.

According to most philosophers, Democritus was born in 460 BC, died in 360/370 BC. Lived for almost 100 years. Originally from Abder, he came from a noble family and was rich, but he abandoned his wealth, spent his whole life in the poor, indulging exclusively in wisdom.

He traveled to Egypt to the priests, to the Chaldeans in Persia, was in Ethiopia. Wrote 50 (60) treatises. He wrote his works day and night, locking himself from everyone in one of the crypts outside the city gates.

His best work is considered to be "Big World Construction", for which he received an award of 500 talents. (Is it a lot or a little? Recall that all the property of Socrates was worth 5 talents)". Taranov P.S. 500 steps to wisdom. T.1. 1996, p. 331.

At first glance, the doctrine of atomism is extremely simple. The beginning of everything that exists is indivisible particles-atoms and emptiness. Nothing arises from the non-existent and is not destroyed into the non-existent, but the emergence of things is the union of atoms, and the destruction is disintegration into parts, ultimately into atoms.

Atomists, subjecting the Eleatic concept of non-existence to a physical interpretation, were the first to teach about emptiness as such. The Eleatics denied the existence of non-existence. "So, being is the antipode of emptiness, they are dualists, since they accepted two principles in the universe: non-being and being." Chanyshev A.N. Course of lectures on ancient philosophy. M., 1981. S. 180.

Democritus had connections with modern scientists. The ancients report that Democritus was a student of his predecessor and friend Leucippus. He communicated with Anaxagoras, was familiar with the works of scientists from the countries of the East.

Democritus was the first in ancient Greek philosophy to introduce the concept of cause into scientific circulation. He denies chance in the sense of causelessness.

In inorganic nature, everything happens not according to goals and in this sense by chance, but the student can have both goals and means. Thus, Democritus' view of nature is strictly causal, deterministic.

He preached a consistent materialistic position in the doctrine of the nature of the soul and knowledge. "The soul, according to Democritus, consists of spherical atoms, i.e. it is like fire." Bogomolov A.S. ancient philosophy. Moscow State University, 1985, p. 152.

The atoms of the soul have the ability to feel. Sensual qualities are subjective (taste, color ...) hence, he concluded that sensory knowledge is unreliable (Honey is bitter for a patient with jaundice and sweet for a healthy one).

But at the same time, he believed that without "dark" knowledge obtained from sensations, there can be no knowledge. "Having formulated an important guess about the relationship between the sensual and the rational, Democritus could not yet give a description of the mechanism for the transition from one to the other. Apparently, logical forms and operations are unknown to him: judgment, concept, inference, generalization, abstraction." There. P.154. The loss of the "Canon", his logical work, makes it impossible to reveal his role in this. Aristotle will tell about the forms of thinking in more detail.

The views of Democritus on man, society, morality and religion are interesting. He intuitively believed that the first of the people led a disorderly life. When they learned how to make fire, they gradually began to develop various arts. He expressed the version that art was born by imitation (We learned from a spider - weaving, from a swallow - to build houses, etc.), that laws are created by people. Wrote about the bad and good people. "Bad people take oaths to the gods when they find themselves in a hopeless situation. When they got rid of him, they still do not keep their oaths." Taranov P.S. 500 steps to wisdom. T.1. 1996, p. 340.

Democritus rejected divine providence, afterlife, posthumous retribution for earthly deeds. The ethics of Democritus is permeated with the ideas of humanism. "The hedonism of Democritus is not only in pleasures, because the highest blessed state of mind and measure in pleasures." Bogomolov A.S. ancient philosophy. Moscow State University, 1985. S. 159.

His moral aphorisms have come down to us in the form of separate sayings. For example, "he who is poor in desires is rich", "good is not in not doing injustice, but in not even wanting it", etc. Taranov P.S. 500 steps to wisdom. T.1. 1996. S. 339-340.

Ideal state structure considered a democratic state, when it is prosperous, everyone is prosperous, when it perishes, everyone perishes.

Leucippus and Democritus brilliantly laid the foundation for the doctrine of the infinity of the worlds. They continued to develop Anaxagoras' conjecture about a purely physical origin and a purely physical, and not divine, nature of the luminaries and all phenomena observed in the firmament.

In general, it should be noted that the philosophy of Democritus is an encyclopedic science based on the atomistic hypothesis.

Democritus, whose atomism and biography we will consider, is a famous Greek philosopher from antiquity. The years of his life - 460-371 BC. e. It was he who first realized that the world has no end and that it is a cluster of atoms - the smallest particles that make up every grain of sand on our planet, and every star in the sky.

Homeland of Democritus, personal qualities of the philosopher

Democritus was born in Thrace, in the ancient Greek city of Abdera. This place in Greece was considered not just a remote province, but even a city of fools. However, the common noun "abderit", in translation meaning "fool", "simpleton", "simpleton", became the proper name of one of the outstanding minds of antiquity, Democritus. From numerous legends and testimonies we learn that Abderit was a "laughing philosopher".

Everything that was done seriously seemed frivolous to him. The surviving stories about him testify that Democritus was characterized by deep worldly wisdom, extensive knowledge, and observation.

Acquaintance with the achievements of philosophers

Damasippus, his father, was one of the richest citizens. Therefore, Democritus received a good education for his time. The philosopher was the Persian sages who lived in Abdera when he was there. However, the real teacher of Democritus is Leucippus, the head of the local philosophical school. It was thanks to him that Democritus got acquainted with the works of the Greek philosophers. His atomism is based on a careful study of the achievements of his predecessors. His education was not limited to the study of the works of Greek philosophers. Democritus, whose atomism will be discussed below, wanted to get acquainted with the achievements of world thought, so he set off on a journey.

The first journey of Democritus

Some time later, his father died. He left a significant inheritance to his son, and Democritus decided to go on a journey. The philosopher went to Babylon, and then to Egypt. Everywhere he met with thinkers, and also got acquainted with the Babylonian magicians and Egyptian priests. From this it follows that his worldview was formed under the influence of many cultures of both the ancient and the new world. Democritus took some elements from each of them and created his own philosophical system.

Teaching, major writings

Returning to Abdera, he began teaching philosophy, as well as creating his own compositions. later compiled a catalog of the works of Democritus. It includes the titles of more than 70 works. Among them, the main place is occupied by the following works: "On Logic, or Merilo", "Small Diacosmos", "Great Diacosmos". The breadth of interests of this philosopher is simply amazing. There was no field of knowledge that he would have left unattended.

The philosopher Democritus, as you know, enjoyed great fame in his city during his lifetime. In gratitude for his merits, the inhabitants of Abdera erected a bronze statue of him. In addition, it was said that he was one of the most famous orators of his time. It is known that Democritus was engaged in philology, created a manual on eloquence.

Second trip

After some time, he decided to make another trip, this time to Athens. At that time, the most famous philosophers of Greece worked here. Diogenes said that Democritus met with Socrates and Anaxagoras. However, they did not share his views. After all, the existence of the gods was categorically denied by Democritus. Its atomism is completely inconsistent with deities in the generally accepted sense.

"Great Diacosmos"

Returning to his native city, the philosopher created the work "The Great Diacosmos". This work outlines the concept of the structure of the world. Democritus believed that all objects are made up of atoms, the smallest particles. While there were few of them, they moved freely. Gradually, the atoms began to attract each other, as birds gather in flocks - cranes with cranes, doves with doves. This is how the Earth was born.

Atomism of Democritus: basic provisions

Two types of properties of phenomena were distinguished by Democritus. Some - "things in themselves" - the image, size, hardness, movement, mass. Other properties of phenomena are associated with various human senses - smell, sound, brightness, color. According to the philosopher, the movements of atoms can explain everything that happens in our world. Democritus' atomism is based on this statement. Let's briefly talk about the main ideas of the philosopher, which follow from this thought.

Democritus believed that atoms are in constant motion, constantly either separating or connecting them. The process of separation and connection leads to the disappearance and appearance of individual objects. As a result of their interaction, all the diversity of the existing is obtained. The motionless earth is the center of the universe. In shape, it is a flat cylinder, which is surrounded by air. In this air various celestial bodies. The philosopher considered these bodies to be masses of matter that are in a red-hot state and are carried upwards by a rapid circular motion. They are made of matter similar to the earth. Atoms of fire permeate all parts of the universe. They are smooth, round and very small. These atoms play an important role - they enliven the universe. In humans, there are especially many of them.

Of course, we have characterized the atomism of Democritus briefly. You can talk about him for a long time, but we need to talk about other achievements of this philosopher.

Man in the writings of Democritus

It should be noted that it is man who is the main subject of research by the ancient Greek philosopher. He argued that the structure of our body is very expedient. The receptacle of thinking is the brain, the receptacle of passions is the heart. However, according to Democritus, only the Philosopher considered the body to be the most important duty of every person to take care of his spiritual development.

Democritus argued that the changing world of phenomena is a ghostly world. The study of its phenomena cannot lead people to true knowledge. Democritus, recognizing the illusory world of the senses, believed, like Heraclitus, that a person should maintain peace of mind, whatever the circumstances. He who can distinguish the essential from the accidental, the genuine from the illusory, seeks happiness not in sensual pleasures, but above all in giving the right course to his spiritual life.

According to Democritus, the purpose of our existence is happiness. However, it does not consist in pleasures and external blessings, but in the unchanging peace of mind, in contentment. This is achieved by purity of deeds and thoughts, abstinence, mental education. According to Democritus, the happiness of each of us depends on how he behaves. The gods give us only good things, only by their own recklessness does man turn it into evil. The application of these thoughts to matters of private and public life forms the basis of the moral philosophy of Democritus.

Divine Powers in the Teachings of Democritus

Naturally, the gods had no place in the world, as this thinker imagined it to be. The atomism of Deomcritus rejects the possibility of their existence. The philosopher believed that people themselves invented them, that they are the embodiments of human properties and natural phenomena. Zeus, for example, was identified by Democritus with the Sun, and Athena, as he believed, was the personification of reason.

According to his teachings, the divine powers are the powers human mind and nature. And the deities created by religion, or ghosts, personifying people's ideas about the forces of nature, or spirits ("demons"), are mortal beings.

Mathematical works

This philosopher, as ancient sources testify, wrote a lot and mathematical works. Unfortunately, only a few fragments have survived to our time. They contain formulas for the volume of a number of figures, for example, pyramids and cones, derived by him.

Social problems considered by Democritus

Democritus also thought a lot about social problems. Both the philosophy of atomism, summarized above, and its other ideas were subsequently accepted by many thinkers. For example, most best form The device of the state, according to this philosopher, is the state-polis. Democritus saw the goal of human life in achieving euthymia - a special state in which people do not experience passions and are not afraid of anything.

Diversified interests of Democritus

The sequence of conclusions, the insight of the mind, the vastness of knowledge, Democritus surpassed almost all philosophers, both former and his contemporaries. His work was very versatile. He created treatises on natural science, mathematics, aesthetics, natural sciences, technical arts, and grammar.

Influence on other thinkers

Democritus and the philosophy of atomism in particular greatly influenced the development of natural science. We have only vague information about this influence, since many of his works perished. However, it can be considered that, as a naturalist, Democritus was the greatest of Aristotle's predecessors. The latter owed him a great deal and spoke of his work with deep respect.

As we have already said, many of the thinker's writings were subsequently lost; we know about them only from the writings of other philosophers who shared or disputed his views. It is known that the ancient atomism of Democritus and the views of this philosopher strongly influenced Titus Lucretius Kara. In addition, Leibniz and Galileo Galilei, who are considered the founders of the new concept of the earth's structure, relied on his works. Moreover, Niels Bohr, the founder of atomic physics, once remarked that the structure of the atom proposed by him follows entirely from the works ancient philosopher. Democritus' theory of atomism thus far outlived its creator.

Democritus (460-360 BC) was born in the city of Abdera in a very rich and noble family. He was taught and educated by both Greek teachers and Persian sages and Chaldeans. One of his teachers was the son of Pythagoras and that is probably why his first work was the work "Numbers". After his death, his parents left him a huge fortune, which he spent on scientific travel and research. Democritus was an encyclopedically educated man. He wrote about 70 scientific treatises on various fields of knowledge: physics, astronomy, rhetoric, epistemology, ethics, biology, psychology, etc. Unfortunately, none of his works have come down to us in full, only excerpts from his works have come down. His life is shrouded in numerous legends. Democritus made a long journey to Egypt, Babylon, Iran, India, Ethiopia. He knew Socrates and was friends with Hippocrates. He called philosophy "Tritogeny", that is, giving three fruits, three abilities - to think well, speak well and do well.

The doctrine of atoms.

Democritus was a supporter of atomism - according to which the atom is the fundamental principle of everything that exists. He borrowed the main provisions of his concept from his teacher Leucippus and developed them further. Democritus claims that everything that exists consists of atoms and emptiness. Atoms are indivisible particles that combine with each other and form things. They differ in form, order and position. Atoms are in constant motion at different speeds and in many different directions. By nature, the movement can be chaotic and orderly, moving, they form vortices. Moreover, they have a purely mechanical movement.

The concept of determinism

Determinism is the doctrine of predestination. According to this concept, everything in the world, down to the smallest natural phenomena and human actions, is predetermined by the position of atoms in the original vortex. Therefore, there is no place for chance in the world.

Theory of the soul.

The principles of atomism were extended to the understanding human soul. The soul is material. It has a spherical shape and consists of light and pure atoms with great mobility. The soul of a person is mortal, when a person dies, the atoms of the soul leave his body, dispersing into space.

Epistemology.

Democritus for the first time in the history of philosophy developed a detailed theory of knowledge based on the difference between sensory and rational knowledge. That is, the process of cognition consists of 2 steps:

1 step. Sense cognition, the lowest form of knowledge (“dark”), it is based on the theory of outflows, which he put forward to explain the perception of external objects by the senses. According to this theory, so-called images, similarities of these objects, flow from objects, when they fall into the eye, visual representations of the object appear.

2 step . Reasonable knowledge, the highest form of knowledge is “true”, since only reason can reveal the essence of ongoing processes and phenomena.

Thus, pre-Socratic thinking laid the foundation philosophical knowledge. Reasonableness, logic, independence of thinking are the undoubted conquests of the beginning philosophical thought. It was they who became the foundation on which the classics - Socrates, Plato and Aristotle - built the grandiose building of systematic philosophy.

B a sic concepts:

· atomism - this is the doctrine according to which the fundamental principle of all that exists is the atom;

· harmony - teaching about music;

· determinism - predestination;

· incarnation - embodiment;

· catharsis - cleansing;

· metempsychosis - the doctrine of the transmigration of souls;

· reincarnation - reincarnation;

· substance – ultimate foundation, a single stable beginning.

L I T E R A T U R A:

1. Anthology of world philosophy. In 4 vols. M. Thought, 1969 (AN USSR. Institute of Philosophy. Philosophical heritage);

2. Bachinin V.A. Philosophy. Encyclopedic Dictionary. - St. Petersburg: Ed. Mikhailova V.A., 2005. - 288 p.

3. Blinnikov L.V. Great philosophers: Educational dictionary-reference book. 2nd ed., revised. And extra. M.: Logos Publishing Corporation, 1999. 432. pp. 35-43;

4. Gaidenko P. The history of Greek philosophy in its connection with science: Tutorial for universities. –M.: PER SE; St. Petersburg: University book, 2000. - 319 p. (Humanitas);

5. Gomperts T. Greek thinkers in 2 vols. St. Petersburg, 1999;

6. Gurevich P.S. Fundamentals of Philosophy: Proc. allowance. – M.: Gardariki, 2005. -439 p. Sir.94-99;

7. Losev A.F. Ancient philosophy of history. St. Petersburg: Alteyya, 2000 - 256 p. 2001;

8. . Mamardashvili M. Lectures on ancient philosophy. - M .: "Agraf", 1998. - 320 p.;

9. Reale J., D. Antiseri. Western philosophy from origins to the present day. - LLP TK "Petropolis", 1994 volume 1;

10. Sychev A.A. Fundamentals of Philosophy: Textbook. - M .: Alfa-M: INFRA-M, 2008. -368s.: ill. pp. 34-38;

11. Philosophical encyclopedic dictionary. – M.: INFRA-M, 1998. – 576 p.;

12. School philosophical dictionary / T.V. Gorbunova, I.S. Gordienko, V.A. Karpunin and others; Tot. ed., comp. and intro. Art. A.F. Malyshevskaya. – M.: Enlightenment: JSC “Study. lit.», 1995.-399 p.

Introduction

The Life and Works of Democritus

The task and origin of the atomists

Philosophical origins of atomism

Atoms and the Void

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

The teachings of Democritus are considered together with the teachings of Leucippus.

This is the pinnacle of ancient materialism. The greatest form of ancient materialism is associated with the names of Democritus, as well as his teacher and predecessor Leucippus. - atomistic materialism. We attribute Democritus to Athenian philosophy, because he gravitated towards Athens, although he did not succeed there.

The real difficulty lies in separating the teachings of Leucippus and Democritus. It is not even known who owned the main atomistic work "On the Mind", or "Great World Construction". Some ancient authors attributed this work to Democritus, others - Leucippus. The role of both philosophers in the creation of the atomistic doctrine is also unclear. The Herculan papyrus No. 1788 contains an accusation against Democritus: allegedly, Democritus in his work “The Small World Construction” outlined the contents of the “Great World Construction”, the author of which the papyrus definitely names Leucippus. But one way or another, little has survived from these two works, which makes it impossible to judge their authors.

However, Leucippus - pre-Socratic, while Democritus is a little older than Socrates. It can be assumed that Leucippus in his teaching emphasized the universe, while Democritus also emphasized man. If Leucippus, as a pre-Socratic, considers a relatively small range of issues - the doctrine of atoms, cosmology and cosmogony, then Democritus expands the range of questions. According to Aristotle, "Democritus reasoned about everything." The philosophical interests of Democritus were related to issues of epistemology, logic, ethics, politics, pedagogy, mathematics, physics, biology, anthropology, medicine, psychology, the history of human culture, philology, linguistics, etc.

The purpose of the work is to consider the atomistic doctrine of Democritus.

1. Life and works of Democritus

The life of Democritus is instructive in devotion to science. Democritus himself stated that he preferred one causal explanation to the possession of the Persian throne. Sources say that at night he locked himself in the cemetery in a hollow tombstone so that he would not be disturbed in his thoughts. There are three versions of the birth date of Democritus. It is generally accepted that Democritus lived from 460 to 370 BC. He is forty years younger than Anaxagoras and thirty years older than Plato. Ancient authors most often call the city of Abdery the birthplace of Democritus. - the far northeastern periphery of Hellas, a Milesian colony on the Thracian coast. Democritus' father, a wealthy man, left a significant inheritance to his three sons, from which Democritus chose a smaller share, which consisted in money, which allowed him to go on a journey.

Ancient sources report on the journey of Democritus to the East: to Egypt, to the priests in order to learn geometry, to the Chaldeans in Babylon. Some say that he also spoke with the gymnosophists in India and allegedly visited Ethiopia. Democritus himself proudly said about himself: “I have traveled more land than any of my contemporary people, exploring it in the most detailed way; I have seen more men and lands than all others, and have spoken with the greatest number of learned people." He also reported that he "spent about eight years in a foreign land." True, it is not clear what Democritus could learn in the East. He himself claims: “No one accused me of making mistakes when folding lines, accompanied by proof, - even the so-called harpedonapts among the Egyptians. The philosophical, ethical and scientific views of Democritus are entirely consistent with the ancient Western philosophical and scientific tradition. While in Athens, Democritus communicated with Socrates. True, Socrates himself did not know who was in front of him. Democritus said about it this way: "I arrived in Athens, and no one here recognized me." There is evidence that Anaxagoras did not accept Democritus as one of his students because of his mockery of Anaxagoras's teachings about Nous. - cosmic mind.

Democritus returned home a poor man. According to the laws of Abder, a person who squandered his father's property was deprived of the right to be buried in his homeland. However, Democritus returned the respect of his fellow citizens, either by some kind of successful prediction, or by reading one of his writings to them. The admiring Abderites allegedly rewarded Democritus with a large sum of money.

Legends about the marriage of Democritus, about his self-blinding, about the circumstances of his death speak of the philosopher's devotion to science, his modesty and self-control. Unlike Heraclitus - "weeping philosopher", Democritus was known as the "laughing philosopher". Seneca writes about it this way: “Every time Heraclitus left the house and saw around him so many people living badly and dying badly, he wept, pitying everyone ... Democritus, as they say, on the contrary, never appeared on people: everything that was done seriously seemed to him so frivolous. Democritus' laughter was bitter: he "laughed, considering all human deeds worthy of laughter."

Democritus owned about seventy works on moral, natural science, mathematical, musical, technical topics, which speaks of the encyclopedic knowledge and interests of the Abdera philosopher. Essays are devoted to moral issues. "Pythagoras", "On the spiritual mood of the sage", "On what is in Hades", "On courage, or On virtue", "On the even mood of the spirit"; natural science - the aforementioned "Great World Construction" (if its author is not Leucippus), "Small World Construction", "Cosmography", "On Planets", "On Nature", "On Human Nature", "On Reason", "On Feelings"; mathematical - "On the touch of a circle and a ball", "On Geometry", "On Numbers"; musical - “On rhythms and harmony”, “On poetry”, “On the beauty of words”, “On euphonious and dissonant letters”; technical - "Prognosis", "On Nutrition, or Dietary Instructions", "Medical Science", "On Agriculture, or Surveying", "On Painting", "Tactics", "Military Affairs". None of these creations have come down to us. This is the great tragedy of ancient materialism. It is not known when the works of Democritus mostly died: at the beginning of the Middle Ages or soon after the death of their author. It is possible that idealists are to blame for the destruction of the works of the ancient materialist. Sources report that Plato already wanted to burn all those writings of Democritus that he could collect, but the Pythagoreans Amikl and Kleniy prevented him, saying that it was useless: after all, the books were already in the hands of many. After reporting this, Aristoxenus continues: “Plato mentioned almost all the ancient philosophers, but does not mention only one Democritus, even in those cases when he should have objected to him. Clearly, he knows that he will have to argue with the best of philosophers.

The atomists set themselves the task of creating a doctrine corresponding to the picture of the world that opens up to human feelings, but at the same time preserving the rational in the teaching of the Eleatics about being in order to achieve a deeper understanding of the world based not only on the testimony of the senses.

The beginning of the atomists - atoms (existence) and emptiness (nonexistence). Atomists, subjecting the Eleatic concept of non-existence to a physical interpretation, were the first to teach about emptiness as such.

The Eleatics, as you know, denied the existence of non-existence. Leucippus, on the other hand, put forward the paradoxical thesis that “non-being exists no less than being”, and “being exists no more than non-being”. This was the first point of the anti-Eleatic thesis of the atomists. - recognition of the existence of non-existence, interpreted by them as empty space. The atomists were forced to admit the existence of emptiness by observing and thinking about everyday phenomena: condensation and rarefaction, permeability (a bucket of ash takes a bucket of water into itself), the difference in weight of bodies of the same volume, movement, etc. All this is understandable, they decided, only if it is empty. The void is immovable and boundless. It has no effect on the bodies in it, on being. Being - the opposite of emptiness. If emptiness has no density, then being is absolutely dense. If emptiness is one, then existence is plural. If emptiness is boundless and formless, then each member of the existential set is determined by its external form. Being absolutely dense, containing no emptiness in itself that would divide it into parts, it is "indivisible", or in Greek - atomos, atom. The atom itself is very small. But, nevertheless, being is no less infinite than non-being. Being - aggregate infinitely a large number small atoms. Thus, the atomists admit the reality of the multitude. This was the second point of their anti-Eleatic assertion. The atomists were prompted to admit the existence of atoms by observation of everyday natural phenomena: the gradual and imperceptible abrasion of a gold coin and marble steps, the spread of odors, the drying of damp and other everyday phenomena indicate that bodies consist of the smallest particles that are not accessible to sensory perception. These particles are indivisible either due to their Smallness, or due to the absence of emptiness in them.

Since atomists accept two principles in the universe: non-existence and being, irreducible to each other, - insofar as they are dualists. Since they interpret being itself as an infinite number of atoms, they are superpluralists. The important thing here is not only that atomists accept an infinite number of atoms, but also that they teach about an infinite number of forms of atoms.

3. Philosophical origins of atomism

There were no powerful telescopes. Laser beams did not penetrate billions of light years away. Spectral analysis did not reveal the properties of incredibly distant cosmic bodies. But human thought has already plowed the Universe to the same distance as the modern one, - to infinity. And this was possible because in ancient philosophy, dialectical thinking still appeared in its original, natural simplicity, not violated by the obstacles that metaphysics created for itself in the XVII century. - 18th century

The atomistic theory of Democritus was a natural result of the development of previous philosophical thought. Already in the teachings of Anaximander of Miletus, a philosopher of the 6th century, there was a hint, a conjecture regarding the possibility of separating more than one world from the "infinite" ("apeiron"). According to Anaximander, the "apeiron" was in perpetual motion, and the cause of this motion - in himself. Already a student of Anaximander - Anaximenes of Miletus considered the basis of all things in the world to be dense (dense) and rarefied. All things arise, he taught, from the condensation and rarefaction of air. In the cosmogony of Anaximander, as well as Heraclitus of Ephesus (who also lived in the 6th century), all processes in nature occur according to the law of necessity, which Heraclitus called "logos".

Already Pythagoras of Samos and his whole school drew attention to the great importance of quantitative relations in the world and geometric forms, rhythm and symmetry in things. They also taught about the world as a world of universal harmony, which finds its expression in the harmony of numbers, and especially in the harmony of the opposites of the limit and the infinite. According to Philolaus, a student of Pythagoras, whom Democritus "met", the fundamental number - this is a unit as a physical monad, a space shaped in a certain way: a segment, a rectangle, a square, a triangle, a cube, a pyramid, etc. Already Parmenides, the founder of the Eleatic school (VI - V centuries), taught that being does not arise and does not perish; it is one, continuous, whole, indivisible and homogeneous, and this being is known by reason. And the Elean Melissus of Samos (5th century) formulated the law of the conservation of being: “Something can never arise from nothing.” Here, in the philosophy of the Eleans, for the first time, a distinction appeared between sensually perceived and true reality.

Already Empedocles of Agrigentum (c. 490 - 430) considered the roots-elements to be the basis of things, and their combination or separation - the cause of creation and destruction of things. Anaxagoras of Clazomenes (c. 500 - OK. 428) believed that the whole world consists of seeds of "homeomeria" (similar parts), not only infinite in number, but also containing the entire infinity of parts of existing things; the smallest and invisible particles of substances were combined in his system into sensually perceived things in all the variety of their qualities.

Finally, some ancient Greek teachings go back to ancient Eastern science. "Oriental science is the forerunner of Greek philosophy". Democritus studied with Egyptian geometers - "Harpedonapts". The origins of his ethical ideas can be found not only in the statements of the "seven wise men" and the Pythagoreans, but also in the teachings of the Babylonian priests.

In the atomistic system we find all the enumerated teachings otherwise meaningful and supplemented. Even the most important principles - the principle of the preservation of being, the principle of attraction of like to like, the very understanding of the physical world as arising from the combination of the original principles, the rudiments of ethical teaching - all the ego was already embedded in philosophical systems that preceded atomism.

However, the premises of the atomistic doctrine and its philosophical origins were not only "ready-made" doctrines and ideas that atomists found in their era. More greater value for the emergence of atomistic theory and the entire system of Democritus had questions posed by their predecessors.

Ancient Greek philosophy grew and developed in favorable socio-economic conditions associated with the transition from an early slave-owning to a mature slave-owning society. It was formed in the process of qualitative transformation mythological worldview influenced by emerging science. Unlike mythology, philosophy did not recognize the primacy of the supranatural in relation to the natural, it subordinated or dissolved it in the natural and naturalistically explained the world. The contradiction between philosophical and mythological thinking contributed to the development philosophical ideas antiquities. This contradiction remained the main one until philosophy itself (in Greece this happened in the 5th century) divided into two camps: materialism and idealism.

New questions and "aporias" - difficulties and contradictions arose within philosophy. The first philosophers tried to define the fundamental principle, the fundamental substance of the world. Then came the contradictions between movement and rest, between the one and the many, between the essence of things and the phenomenon, and finally, between the physical and the mental. Each philosophical school solved these issues in its own way, while developing the beginnings of various fields of science and worldview. The atomism of Democritus answered the questions posed by his time. This is what determined his great influence on the further development of philosophy.

Many researchers believe that the doctrine of atoms arose as a response to the questions posed by the Eleans, and as a resolution of the revealed contradiction between sensually perceived and intelligible reality? vividly expressed in the "aporia" of Zeno. For the first time among the Eleatics from natural philosophy - a speculative interpretation of nature, considered in its entirety - philosophy begins to stand out. This most important step in the history of thought was accompanied by the emergence of a negative attitude towards the first philosophers; rational knowledge, which gives a philosophical picture of the world as the intelligible essence of things, is declared the only true one, while sensual knowledge, which gives a natural-philosophical picture of the world as a world of phenomena, is declared untrue. In the philosophy of the Eleatics, questions are clarified about the relationship between being and non-being and about the relationship between being and thinking, that is, the main question of philosophy is solved.

Parmenides (540-470) attributed being, that is, everything that exists, to the intelligible world, and therefore the true one. To the sensible world, and therefore untrue, he attributed non-existence, that is, that which does not exist. By non-existent, the Eleans understood emptiness as "nothing".

Parmenides and the Eleans believed that being is one, whole, continuous, homogeneous, unchanging and motionless. There can be nothing else but being, and hence the remarkable conclusion: being does not arise and does not perish. But hence the denial of movement (being can move only into non-being, but there is none), and the denial of the change of being in time (there could not be and will not be anything other than what is in the present).

Aristotle emphasized that Leucippus and Democritus built their theory "most methodically" "on the basis of what is in accordance with nature as it is." In his testimonies, the first atomists, like the Ionian natural philosophers, act as "physicists", that is, researchers of nature, and nature was understood primarily as the "essence of things." Following Empedocles and Anaxagoras, they carried out a synthesis of the Ionian and Western Greek lines of philosophy and, resolving the questions posed by the Eleans with their theory, made a radical change in the development of Greek philosophy.

Eleatic being was understood as the whole universe, as the totality of all things, and as such it could not arise from the non-existent or become nothing. But this being has become from a single multiple, consisting of an infinite number of atoms, each of which is indivisible, homogeneous, integral, unchangeable, complete, like the Elean "single being". Atoms are constantly moving, and therefore, existence began to be described as discontinuous, and this was correct solution. “We cannot imagine, express, measure, depict movement without interrupting the continuous, without simplifying, roughening, without dividing, without deadening the living.” But movement is, according to the Eleans, a passage into non-existence; Leucippus and Democritus admitted the existence of non-existence - emptiness.

4. Atoms and the Void

The introduction by atomists of the concept of emptiness as non-existence had a deep philosophical significance. The category of non-existence made it possible to explain the emergence and change of things. True, in Democritus, being and non-being coexisted side by side, separately: atoms were carriers of multiplicity, while emptiness embodied unity; this was the metaphysical nature of the theory. Aristotle tried to overcome it, pointing out that we see “the same continuous body, now liquid, now solidified,” therefore, a change in quality is not only a simple connection and separation. But at the contemporary level of science, he could not give a proper explanation for this, while Democritus convincingly argued that the reason for this phenomenon is in the change in the amount of between - atomic emptiness.

The concept of emptiness led to the concept of spatial infinity. The metaphysical feature of ancient atomism also manifested itself in the understanding of this infinity as an endless quantitative accumulation or reduction, connection or separation of the constant "bricks" of being. However, this does not mean that Democritus generally denied qualitative transformations; on the contrary, they played a huge role in his picture of the world. Entire worlds are transformed into others. Separate things also transform, because eternal atoms cannot disappear without a trace, they give rise to new things. The transformation occurs as a result of the destruction of the old whole, the separation of atoms, which then make up a new whole. According to Democritus, atoms are indivisible, they are absolutely dense and have no physical parts. But in all bodies they are combined in such a way that there remains at least a minimum amount of emptiness between them; the consistency of bodies depends on these gaps between atoms.

In addition to the signs of the Elean being, atoms have the properties of the Pythagorean "limit". Each atom is finite, limited to a certain surface and has an invariable geometric shape. On the contrary, emptiness, as "infinite", is not limited by anything and is devoid of the most important sign of true being. - forms. Atoms are not perceptible to the senses. They are like dust particles floating in the air, and invisible due to their too small size, until a ray of the sun falls on them, penetrating through the window into the room. But atoms are much smaller than these grains of dust; only a ray of thought, of reason, can reveal their existence. They are also imperceptible because they do not have the usual sensory qualities. - color, smell, taste, etc.

Simplicius clearly tells us that "the Pythagoreans and Democritus, not without reason, in searching for the causes of sensible qualities, came to forms (i.e., to atoms)." The reduction of the structure of matter to more elementary and qualitatively homogeneous physical units than the "elements", "four roots" and partly even the "seeds" of Anaxagoras, was of great importance in the history of science.

Studying the testimony of Theophrastus, a student of Aristotle, whose comments served as the primary source of many later reports on the philosophy of Greek pre-Socrates, including Democritus, the English scholar Mac Diarmid noted a certain contradiction. In some places we are talking only about the difference in the forms of atoms, in others - also about the difference in their order and position. However, it is not difficult to understand: the order and position (rotation) can differ not in single atoms, but in composite bodies, or groups of atoms, in one composite body. Such groups of atoms can be located up or down (position), as well as in a different order (like the letters HA and AN), which modifies the body, makes it different. And although Democritus could not predict the laws of modern biochemistry, but it is from this science that we know that, indeed, the dissimilarity of two organic substances of the same composition, for example, two polysaccharides, depends on the order in which their molecules are built. A huge variety of protein substances depends mainly on the order of arrangement of amino acids in their molecules, and the number of possible combinations with their combinations is almost infinite. The fundamental particles of matter, the existence of which was assumed by Democritus, combined to some extent the properties of an atom, a molecule, a microparticle, a chemical element, and some more complex compounds.

Atoms also differed in size, on which, in turn, gravity depended. As you know, the conjecture about atomic weight belongs to Epicurus. However, Democritus was already on the way to this concept, recognizing the relative weight of atoms, which, depending on their size, are heavier or lighter. So, for example, he considered the smallest and smoothest spherical atoms of fire, which make up the air, as well as the human soul, to be the lightest atoms.

The question of the so-called amers, or "mathematical atomism", of Democritus is connected with the shape and size of atoms. Row ancient Greek philosophers(Pythagoreans, Eleians, Anaxagoras, Leucippus) were engaged in mathematical research. Undoubtedly, Democritus was also an outstanding mathematical mind. However, Democritus' mathematics differed from the generally accepted one. According to Aristotle, she "shattered mathematics." It was based on atomistic concepts. Agreeing with Zeno that the divisibility of space to infinity leads to absurdity, to the transformation into zero values, from which nothing can be built, Democritus discovered his indivisible atoms. But the physical atom did not coincide with the mathematical point. According to Democritus, atoms had different sizes and shapes, figures, some were larger, others smaller. He admitted that there are hook-shaped, anchor-shaped, rough, angular, curved atoms - otherwise they would not stick to each other. Democritus believed that atoms are physically indivisible, but mentally parts can be distinguished in them. - points, which, of course, cannot be rejected, they do not have their own weight, but they are also extended: This is not zero, but the minimum value, further indivisible, the mental part of the atom - "amera" (partless). According to some evidence (among them there is a description of the so-called “Democritus Square” by Giordano Bruno), in the smallest atom there were 7 amer: top, bottom, left, right, front, back, middle. It was mathematics, consistent with the data of sense perception, which said that, no matter how little physical body - like the invisible atom, - such parts (sides) in it can always be imagined, while dividing to infinity is even mentally impossible.

Of the extended points, Democritus composed the Extended lines, of which - planes. The cone, for example, according to Democritus, consists of the thinnest sensually not perceived because of its thinness circles parallel to the base. So, by folding lines, accompanied by proof, Democritus discovered a theorem about the volume of a cone, which is equal to a third of the volume of a cylinder with the same base and equal height; he also calculated the volume of the pyramid. Both discoveries were acknowledged (and already substantiated differently) by Archimedes.

The authors reporting on the views of Democritus had little understanding of his mathematics. Aristotle and subsequent mathematicians sharply rejected it, so it was forgotten. Some modern scholars deny the difference between atoms and amers in Democritus or believe that Democritus considered atoms to be indivisible both physically and theoretically; but the latter point of view leads to too great a contradiction. The atomistic theory of mathematics existed, and it subsequently revived in the school of Epicurus.

Atoms are infinite in number, the number of configurations of atoms is also infinite (varied), "since there is no reason why they should be more like this than different." This principle (“no more so than otherwise”), which is sometimes called in the literature the principle of indifference or diversity, is characteristic of the Democritanian explanation of the universe. With its help, it was possible to substantiate the infinity of movement, space and time. According to Democritus, the existence of countless atomic forms causes an infinite variety of directions and speeds of the primary movements of atoms, and this in turn leads them to meetings and collisions. Thus, all world formation is determined and is a natural consequence of the eternal motion of matter.

The Ionian philosophers have already spoken of perpetual motion. However, this view was still associated with hylozoism. The world is in perpetual motion, for it is in their understanding - Living being. Democritus solves the problem quite differently. Its atoms are not animated (the atoms of the soul are them only in connection with the body of an animal or a person). Perpetual motion - it is the collision, repulsion, adhesion, separation, movement and fall of the atoms caused by the original whirlwind. Moreover, atoms have their own, primary movement, not caused by shocks: "shake in all directions" or "vibrate". The latter concept was not developed; it was not noticed by Epicurus when he corrected the Democritus theory of the motion of atoms by introducing an arbitrary deviation of atoms from a straight line.

In his picture of the structure of matter, Democritus also proceeded from the principle put forward by the previous philosophy (formulated by Melissus and repeated by Anaxagoras), the principle of the preservation of being: "nothing arises from nothing." He associated it with the eternity of time and movement, which meant a certain understanding of the unity of matter (atoms) and the forms of its existence. And if the Eleans believed that this principle applies only to the intelligible "truly existing", then Democritus attributed it to the real, objectively existing world, nature.

The atomistic picture of the world seems simple, but it is grandiose. The hypothesis about the atomic structure of matter was the most scientific in its principles and the most convincing of all previously created by philosophers. She swept aside in the most decisive way the bulk of religious and mythological ideas about the supernatural world, about the intervention of the gods. In addition, the picture of the movement of atoms in the world void, their collision and adhesion is the simplest model of causal interaction. The determinism of the atomists became the antithesis of Platonic teleology. Democritus picture of the world - this is already pronounced materialism, such a philosophical explanation of the world was in the conditions of antiquity as opposed to the mythological one as possible.

Leucippus and Democritus consistently taught about infinite worlds from the point of view of atomism. According to their views, many worlds exist simultaneously in space; they are different (some are the same), at very different distances from each other and at different stages of development. Each of them is born, flourishes and dies. The collision of these worlds can cause a cosmic catastrophe. S. Mugler explains this view in an interesting way: Democritus is not talking about the fall of entire worlds on top of each other - this, according to Mugler, is a misunderstanding of the sources, - but only about the fallout (so said by Plutarch and Hippolytus) of individual atoms of one world into another (cosmic radiation, we would say) in the form of outflows, which can have detrimental consequences. However, Hippolytus really talks about the collision of worlds, not atoms. But Plutarch also speaks of the fallout of alien bodies on Earth as a source of disease; Lucretius has similar thoughts.

Proceeding from the atomistic theory, Democritus draws a grandiose cosmogonic hypothesis. Vortex-like motion, according to Democritus, was the reason for the formation of our world, and this world, now in its heyday, is subject to the natural laws of the universe. In the process of vortex motion, a qualitative differentiation of matter took place. As a result of the action of the law of attraction of like like, atoms, more or less uniform in form, united together, the Earth and heavenly bodies arose, heated from the speed of movement. But the same law had the opposite effect; dissimilar atoms repel each other. Thus, the processes of attraction and repulsion led to the formation of the entire surrounding world. Here, the words of F. Engels are especially appropriate that, in contrast to the metaphysical natural science of the 17th-18th centuries. "For the Greek philosophers, the world was essentially something that emerged from chaos, something that developed, something that became."

Everything that happens in the world, according to Democritus, is not subject to supernatural power, but only to the law of necessity. Necessity Democritus pestered as an endless chain of causal relationships. He did not look for the root cause of the world - he denied it. But he was constantly looking for the causal foundations of all temporal phenomena. This is evidenced by the titles of a whole cycle of his works: "Heavenly Causes"; "Air Causes"; "Ground causes"; "Causes of fire and that which is in fire"; "Causes of sounds"; "Causes of seeds, plants and fruits"; "Causes of Living Beings"; "Mixed Causes". As part of technical essays - "Causes of favorable and unfavorable", and in ethical notes - "Causes of Laws".

Some scholars have attempted to dispute the authenticity of the Causes. However, these attempts do not have serious grounds. Although the "Causes" are listed in Diogenes Laertius's list separately from the tetralogy, Diogenes' final phrase clearly indicates that everything he listed was considered authentic in antiquity, and only the "other" writings (not included in the list) are either partially altered or not authentic. Find the causes of phenomena - this was, according to Democritus, one of the main tasks of science and the activity of a scientist (“sage”). Even if the titles of the "Causes" are inaccurately rendered, and if the famous saying of Democritus that it is preferable for him to find one reason than to take the Persian throne, - legend, the entire content of the natural science and philosophical passages of Democritus testifies that the main thing for the philosopher was the search for a causal pattern of phenomena. social philosophy, the theory of sensations, the doctrine of the origin of living nature, issues of zoology, botany, psychology - such was the range of scientific interests of Democritus, judging by the fragments that have come down to us. And his examination of each question was saturated with causal explanations. Often these are imaginary explanations made from a meager supply of facts by analogy. But it's always - explanation of phenomena by natural causes, which is why Democritus has so many correct observations and brilliant guesses.

From Aristotle, who held a teleological point of view, that is, he looked for "final cause" and purpose in nature, and ending with Christian writers who believe in "divine providence," all opponents of materialistic determinism attacked Democritus.

In fact, Democritus was so fascinated by the possibility of a "through" causal explanation of the world that he declared all kinds of random events to be only a subjective illusion generated by ignorance of the true causes of what is happening. Knowledge of them, according to Democritus, turns any accident into a necessity.

Democritus, widely using the principle of analogy between the microcosm and macrocosm, widespread in antiquity, cited examples in his writings mainly from human practice. Therefore, Simplicius, as well as the aforementioned Dionysius, consider that Democritus' denial of chance did not apply to natural phenomena.

According to Epicurus, the need for the philosophy of Democritus is fatal. Criticizing the "physicists", Epicurus wrote that "it is better to follow the myth of the gods than to be a slave to predestination (revered) by naturalists", since inexorable necessity does not even leave such hope as prayer. Perhaps responding to the criticism of Aristotle (who had a greater influence on him), Epicurus, in order to justify the free will of man, amended the doctrine of the movement of atoms and allowed the atom to deviate from a straight line when it falls. After all, the atoms of the soul also move, and if they depend on a chain of causes and effects stretching to infinity, a person becomes a slave to necessity. K. Marx in his dissertation showed that this difference between the systems of Democritus and Epicurus is essential. Epicurus' correction turned out to be an anticipation of modern science, which discovered the uncertainty relation in the motion of microparticles.

However, if you think about the teachings of Democritus, it becomes clear that he was not a fatalist. He rejected chance only in its literal sense, that is, he denied blind "fate". He was an adherent of necessity as a natural course of phenomena. On the other hand, he denied the inevitable fate of the fatalists (and the fate - “Moira”, which, according to the Greek religion, weighed on a person and, in fact, also turned out to be arbitrariness, which was captured by the ancient Greek tragedians.

From the point of view of fatalism (which took on a classical form in Stoicism), all events are predetermined from the immemorial past to the present and future by a chain of causes and effects. Only Pseudo-Plutarch interpreted the view of Democritus in this way. However, in this fragment it is said that since the movement of atoms is eternal, then the causes of the present are also embedded in it. But for each phenomenon, Democritus was looking for a specific cause, carrying out a selfless scientific search, which would make no sense if he stood on the point of view of fatalism. The ethics of Democritus is also devoid of fatalism and presupposes the free will of man; this was fully recognized by Epicurus, who, however, saw in this inconsistency and believed that in Democritus "theory comes into collision with practice."

The question of the nature of the determinism of Democritus was studied by the Soviet scientist I. D. Rozhansky. In his book, he compared the cosmological views of Anaxagoras and Democritus. According to Anaxagoras, if cosmic formation could take place not only here, but also in another place, then this world would be similar to ours in all respects. This point of view was associated with Anaxagora's understanding of the cosmos as a living organism that reproduces itself. Democritus does not agree with this. Countless worlds can be completely different.

Conclusion

atomistic materialism democritus emptiness

Democritus owned about seventy works on moral, natural science, mathematical, musical, technical topics, which speaks of the encyclopedic knowledge and interests of the Abdera philosopher. None of these creations have come down to us. It is not known when the writings of Democritus mostly perished.

The atomistic theory of Democritus was a natural result of the development of previous philosophical thought.

According to Democritus, the laws governing the movement of atoms leave an unlimited field of possibilities (due to the infinite variety of both the atoms themselves and their combinations) for the formation of the most different worlds. The same variety of atoms creates different chains of cause and effect, which require investigation in each individual case. So, in Democritus, chance and necessity do not exclude, but presuppose each other. Epicurus accused Democritus of not sufficiently substantiating this view by the very movement of atoms.

Bibliography

1. Vitz B.B. Democritus. - M., 1979

History of Philosophy in brief / translation from Czech. I.I. Bogut. - M., 1991

3. Radugin A.A. Philosophy. Lecture course. - M., 2001

4. Smirnov I.N., Titov V.F. Philosophy. - M., 1998.

5. Spirkin A.G. Philosophy. Textbook. - M., 2001