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Philosophy history of the universe of ancient india briefly. Diversity of Philosophical Schools of Ancient India

AT Ancient In India, pre-philosophical knowledge was accumulated in the Vedas. The approximate dating of the most ancient Vedic texts dates back to the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. Veda(from Sanskrit - to know) are collections of ancient myths and mysteries, sacrificial formulas and spells intended for cult use Brahmins(priests). From a philosophical point of view, the most interesting are the texts called Upanishads(from Skt. upa - near and sad - to sit, i.e. sitting around the teacher in order to learn the truth), in which an attempt is made for the first time to philosophically comprehend the questions posed in earlier Vedic texts. They form the main themes of Indian philosophy: the oldest versions of the origin of the world, the interpretation of the fundamental principle of being; a certain vision of the life destiny of a person - the concept of an unlimited circle of reincarnations of the soul ( samsara and law karma) and the idea of the possibility and conditions for the realization of human freedom, which is able to overcome the cosmic law of karma.

These fundamental moral ideas, first formulated in the Rigveda and the Upanishads, permeate the main philosophical schools and schools ancient india. Formed six orthodox, i.e. based on the sacred Vedic knowledge of worldview systems: Vedanta, Mimamsa, Samkhya, Yoga, Vaisheshika, Nyaya. All of them, despite the discrepancy, are considered equal in the interpretation of truth, they are all united by a number of common concepts and ideas.

First of all, the central point of all these schools is the doctrine of brahman - the world spiritual principle, from which the whole world arises with all its elements, and atman - the individual soul, the impersonal spiritual principle, "I". At the same time, brahman and atman identical, i.e. the existence of an individual person is identical with the universal essence of the world. On the one hand, the brahman in the individual is aware of himself, and, on the other hand, at the highest level of the intuitive "I", the atman merges with the brahman.

Related to this is the doctrine of samsara(circle of life) and karma(law of retribution) in the Upanishads. In the doctrine of samsara, human life is understood as a certain form of an endless stream of rebirths. And the future birth of an individual is determined by the law of karma. The future of a person is the result of those deeds and deeds that a person performed in previous lives. And only one who has led a decent life can expect to be born in future life as a representative of the highest varna (estate): a brahmin (priest), a kshatriya (a warrior or a representative of authority) or a vaishya (a farmer, an artisan or a merchant). Those who led an unrighteous way of life, in the future, are destined for the fate of a member of the lower varna - a sudra (commoner) or even worse: his atman can get into the body of an animal. The flow of reincarnations continues until a person is completely freed from attachment to material existence.

The cycle of life eternal, and everything obeys him - both people and gods. The Atman, when it leaves the body burned on a funeral pyre, under the influence of karma is forced to constantly return to this cycle, to find the next incarnations. The most important task of man and the main theme of the Upanishads is his liberation from the "world of objects and passions." This liberation is realized through the dissolution of atman in brahman, i.e. knowledge identities his individual soul with the world soul. Awareness of the identity of atman and brahman is the true, most true knowledge. Only one who is able to realize this identity is freed from the endless series of rebirths of samsara. The soul of such a person merges with the Brahman and remains in it forever. At the same time, she is freed from the influence of karma, rises above joy and sorrow, life and death. This liberation moksha- and there is the highest goal and the truest path . The condition for its achievement, in addition to higher knowledge, is an ascetic way of life.

Thus, a person's life is an endless chain of rebirths, accompanied by suffering, but he has the opportunity, having merged with the Brahman, to break the circle of samsara, get out of the chain of births, get rid of suffering, having reached the highest goal - moksha. Life, therefore, is seen as a long process of changing different lives and they must be lived in such a way as to ultimately leave samsara.

Starting from the VI century. BC. Significant changes are taking place in Indian society: agricultural and handicraft production is developing, social differentiation is increasing, the institution of tribal power is losing its influence and the power of the monarchy is increasing. Unorthodox schools of Indian philosophy appear, the main of which ajivika, carvaka lokayata, Jainism, as well as Buddhism- a religious and philosophical doctrine that arose in the 6th-5th centuries BC. and later developed into world religion. Its founder is an Indian prince Siddhartha Gautama (623-544 BC) , later named buddha(from Sanskrit budh - to awaken), because after many years of asceticism and asceticism he reached awakening, that is, he came to an understanding of the right path of life.

Gautama was young, healthy and rich. He spent his days serenely and happily, walking in his Garden of Eden and admiring the blossoming nature. His palace and garden were completely isolated from the rest of the world, he had never seen it and therefore did not know what was happening in it. It seemed to him that his youth, health and wealth were eternal and unchanging, and his happiness was infinite and constant.

But one day he had four significant meetings that radically changed his worldview: with a very old man, a seriously ill person, a funeral ceremony and an ascetic. He understood that human life is predominantly filled with suffering and misfortune, and therefore its burden is heavy. After a long spiritual search, he achieved a true understanding of being, became a Buddha.

The Buddha rejected the concept of the eternal immutable being of the Brahman and opposed it with the doctrine of being as a process. incessant becoming, rise and fall, which obeys the law of causality. Buddha considered only one truth to be unconditional: the world is arranged in such a way that a person in it - suffering creature. The central idea of Buddhist teaching is release from suffering, which found expression in four noble truths:

The first one is the truth suffering»: about the universality of suffering that permeates the existence of a person from birth to death;

The second is "truth the reasons': suffering is conditioned desire- enjoyment, existence; but all our desires are a horizon rapidly running away into the distance, and therefore our life is a constant pursuit of the unrealizable and impossible;

The third is "truth release»: suffering can be stopped by giving up and freeing yourself from desire, that is, by eliminating the thirst for life; the elimination of one's own desires is called asceticism and is the way of the right life in Buddhist teaching;

Fourth - "truth way": exists path leading to liberation from suffering is a noble octal path that involves sinless lifestyle, harming others, practice meditation(from Latin meditatio - concentrated reflection) - in-depth mental concentration and detachment from external objects and internal experiences. As a result, a transition is achieved from the state of samsara (the cycle of rebirths) to the state nirvana(Skt. - attenuation, fading) - the state of higher enlightenment, wisdom and peace (calmness of the soul). This is a state of supreme bliss, the ultimate goal of a person's aspirations and his being, characterized by detachment from life's worries and desires.

So, the meaning of ancient Indian philosophy was different than in the West. She Oriented not on changing external conditions existence - of nature and society, and on self improvement, wore not extroverted, but introvertive character. Here, wisdom is associated primarily not with the substantiation of theoretical concepts, as in the European ancient philosophy but with higher knowledge and self-knowledge through asceticism.

1) Veda (Skt. Véda - “knowledge”, “teaching”) - a collection of the ancients (25 thousand years BC) scriptures Hinduism in Sanskrit according to the Shruti method (from what he heard).

2) Structure (shared the Vedas by the ancient Indian poet and sage Vyasa)

1. Samhitas (religious chants about rituals)

2. Brahmins (books written by the servants of Brahma)

3. Aranyaki (forest lyrics of hermits)

4. Upanishads (the main essence of the Vedas is stated (the concept of Brahman and the individual soul - Atman) - therefore they are also called "Vedanta" (end, completion of the Vedas) and they are the basis of Vedantic Hinduism)

Types of Upanishads: classical (7th century BC) and false (non-classical)

3) Key Ideas

The idea of the absolute (the beginning of existence).

"The Absolute is Brahman":

Brahman - creature, the father of all things, in its highest manifestations acts as a kind of universal Atman (immortal soul)

thought (thinking)

Prana (breath, energy)

Brahman created everything from itself .

Everything that exists contains Brahman (pantheism)

Life is eternal, because its source is Brahman.

Idea of God.

· God is the first-born (born by Brahma). Gods exist. Asuras (negative) and Devas (positive)

The gods did not possess immortality at first. Immortality is an acquired quality as a result of evolution (the life of the Gods - cosmic cycles), after the creation of the drink of immortality "Holy Amrita"

3. The idea of the immortality of the individual soul (Atman).

Atman is neither born nor dies

There is no death - life is endless

4. The idea of eternity and the cycle of life (like the wheel of Samsara).

· Death as a change of life form.

Circulation: heavenly water, atma, earthly water (mortal)

5. The idea of karma ("kar" in this case- action).

· Based on the universality of relations, the laws of cause and effect.

· Thought is the main determining factor of karma. “As our thoughts are, so we become” - Upanishad.

Every phenomenon has its causes and consequences. According to the law of karma, the consequences return to the one who performs the action.

Karma is inevitable, not identified with fate.

6. The idea of many inhabited worlds that we can acquire by the law of karma.

Material (lower)

Spiritual (highest)

7. The idea of a righteous path leading to merging with the absolute (Brahma) (yoga).

Yoga is the path of merging an individual soul with a deity, gaining Brahma, entering the path of immortality, gaining a higher state in which the senses, thought, mind are inactive, a person is concentrated.

4) School classification

1. Orthodox(the only, unconditional authority of the Vedas as the source of higher knowledge)

· Sankhya

Essence: there are two principles in the world: prakriti (matter) and purusha (spirit). The goal of Samkhya philosophy is to divert spirit from matter.

· Yoga

Essence: the goal is to control the mind through meditation (dhyana), realize the difference between reality and illusion and achieve liberation.

· Mimansa (early)

Essence: the goal is to clarify the nature of dharma, understood as the obligatory performance of a set of rituals performed in a certain way. The nature of dharma is not open to reasoning or observation.

· Mimansa (late) = Vedanta

Essence: mainly focused on self-realization - the individual's understanding of his original nature and the nature of the Absolute Truth - in its personal aspect as Bhagavan or in its impersonal aspect as Brahman.

· Nyaya

Essence: considers mainly the conditions of correct thinking and the means of knowing reality. Recognizes the presence of four independent sources true knowledge: perception, inference, comparison and proof.

· Vaisheshika

Bottom line: while recognizing the Buddhist point of view on the sources of knowledge: perception and inference, Vaisheshika at the same time believes that souls and substances are indisputable facts. It does not associate itself with problems of theology.

2. Unorthodox(in addition to the Vedas, other sources of knowledge)

· Buddhism

Essence: The Buddha came to the conclusion that the cause of people's suffering is their own actions and to stop suffering, to achieve nirvana, you can practice self-restraint and meditation.

Four Noble Truths:

About suffering (throughout life)

The cause of suffering (the desire to satisfy needs)

Cessation of suffering (relinquishing desires)

middle way

· Jainism

Essence: Calls for spiritual improvement through the development of wisdom and self-control. The goal of Jainism is to discover the true nature of the human soul. Perfect perception, perfect knowledge and perfect conduct, known as the "Three Jewels of Jainism", are the path to the liberation of the human soul from samsara (the cycle of birth and death).

· Lokayata (Charvaka)

The bottom line: the universe and everything that exists happened naturally, without the intervention of otherworldly forces. There are four elements: earth, water, fire and air. They are eternal and are the fundamental principle of all things.

Ticket 6: Philosophy of Ancient China: basic
philosophical ideas and schools.

Ancient Chinese philosophy arises and develops in the period from the 7th to the 3rd centuries BC. The Zhangguo period in ancient Chinese history is often referred to as the "golden age of Chinese philosophy". It was during this period that concepts and categories arose, which then became traditional for all subsequent Chinese philosophy, right up to modern times.

Ideas of Taoism

The main idea of Taoism is the assertion that everything obeys the Tao, everything arises from the Tao and everything returns to the Tao. Tao is the universal Law and Absolute. Even the great Heaven follows the Tao. To know the Tao, to follow it, to merge with it - this is the meaning, purpose and happiness of life. Tao manifests itself through its emanation - de. If a person learns the Tao, follows it, then he will achieve immortality. For this you need:

Ø Firstly, the nourishment of the spirit: a person is an accumulation of numerous spirits - divine forces, to which heavenly spirits corresponded. Heavenly spirits keep track of the good and evil deeds of a person and determine the period of his life. Thus, the nourishment of the spirit is the performance of virtuous deeds.

Ø Secondly, body nutrition is necessary: adherence to the strictest diet (the ideal was the ability to feed on one's own saliva and inhale the dew ether), physical and breathing exercises, and sexual practice.

Such a path to immortality was long and difficult, accessible not to every person. Therefore, there is a desire to simplify it by creating a miraculous elixir of immortality. Emperors and representatives of the nobility especially needed this. The first emperor who wished to achieve immortality with the help of an elixir was the famous Qin-shih-huangdi, who sent expeditions to distant lands to search for the components necessary for the elixir.

Philosophical schools

1. Taoism - the universe is a source of harmony, therefore everything in the world, from a plant to a person, is beautiful in its natural state. The best ruler is the one who leaves the people alone. Representatives of this period: Lao Tzu, Le Tzu, Zhuang Tzu, Yang Zhu; Wenzi, Yin Xi. Representatives of later Taoism: Ge Hong, Wang Xuanlan, Li Quan, Zhang Boduan.

2. Confucianism (zhujia) - the ruler and his officials must rule the country according to the principles of justice, honesty and love. Ethical rules, social norms, and regulation of the administration of a despotic centralized state were studied. Representatives: Confucius, Zengzi, ZiSi, Yuzho, Zi-gao, Mengzi, Xunzi.

3. Moism (mojia) - the meaning of the teaching was in the ideas of universal love (jian ai) and prosperity, everyone should take care of mutual benefit. Representatives: Mo Tzu, Qin Huali, Meng Sheng, Tian Xiang Tzu, Fu Dun.

4. Legalism - dealt with problems social theory and public administration. The idea of universal equality. Representatives: Shen Buhai, Li Kui, Wu Qi, ShanYang, Han Feizi; often referred to as Shen Dao as well.

5. School of names (Mingjia) - mismatch between the names of the essence of things leads to chaos. Representatives: Deng Xi, Hui Shi, Gongsun Long; Mao-gun.

6. School "yin-yang" (yinyangjia) (natural philosophers). Yin is a heavy, dark, earthy, feminine principle. Yang is light, bright, heavenly, masculine. Their harmony is a condition for the normal existence of the world, and imbalance leads to natural disasters. Representatives: Zi-wei, Zouyan, ZhangTsang.

Ticket 7: Teaching about dao, de and wu weiLaozi.

The Tao Te Ching is the foundational treatise of the philosophy of Taoism. Most modern researchers date the Tao Te Ching to the 4th-3rd centuries. BC. Authorship is attributed to Lao Tzu (Li Er, Li Dan, Li Bo-Yan) - he lived at the end of the 7th - the first half of the 6th century. BC. (according to some sources, the date of birth is 604 BC). He was a princely official, in charge of the archive.

DAO: Tao is the “way”, the essence of all things and the total being of the universe.

Dao incorporeal and not amenable to sensory perception, it is everywhere and nowhere, formless and nameless, infinite and eternal, empty but inexhaustible. It is the progenitor of everything, including the gods.

Tao (according to the abstract) is the natural way, the law of all things.

DE: On the one hand, Te is what feeds Tao, makes it possible (opposite: Tao feeds Te, Tao is unlimited, Te is certain). This is a kind of universal force, a principle by which the Tao-way of things can take place.

Te - the art of properly managing life energy, correct behavior. But Te is not morality in the narrow sense. Te goes beyond common sense, prompting a person to release vitality out of the way of everyday life.

Te (according to the synopsis) - that which nourishes and nurtures the universal qualities, the attributes of Tao.

Lao Tzu o Te

"Creating and educating the existing; creating, not possessing what is created; setting in motion, not making efforts for it; leading, not considering oneself the ruler - this is what is called the deepest Te."

"A person with a higher Te does not strive to do good deeds, therefore he is virtuous; a person with a lower Te does not leave the intention to do good deeds, therefore he is not virtuous; a person with a higher Te is inactive and carries out non-action; a person with a lower Te is active, and his actions are deliberate ".

"Te appears only after the loss of Tao; philanthropy - after the loss of Te."

Wu-wei: Wu-wei is contemplative passivity. This word is often translated as "non-action". The most important quality of non-action is the absence of reasons for action. There is no reflection, no calculation, no desire. There are no intermediate steps at all between the inner nature of man and his action in the world. The action happens suddenly and, as a rule, reaches the goal in the shortest way, as it relies on the perception of the here and now. Such a world existence is typical only for enlightened people, whose mind is soft, disciplined and completely subordinate to the deep nature of man.

According to Lao Tzu, “If anyone wants to take over the world and manipulate it, he will fail. For the world is a sacred vessel that cannot be manipulated. If anyone wants to manipulate him, he will destroy him. If anyone wants to appropriate it, he will lose it.”

Wu Wei is not a complete renunciation of action. This is a rejection of emotional involvement in the action, and only as a result - the minimization of the actions performed.

Ticket 8: Ancient philosophy: features
development and basic schools.

Ancient philosophy arises in the 7th - 8th centuries. BC. during the formation of the slave society. It arises and develops in large economic centers and city-states located at the crossroads of important trade routes.

Ancient philosophy arises on the basis of intensive processing of mythological ideas about the world and man.

Mythological representation and related religious performance gradually gives way to philosophy, which is distinguished by the desire for a rational theoretical substantiation of the positive knowledge that the first philosophers (Babylon, Dr. Egypt) possessed.

The main methods of this philosophy are observation and reflection on the results of observations in nature.

Three stages in the development of ancient philosophy:

Ø Early period (Pre-Socratic) (VII-first half of the 5th century BC) - Pythagorean, Miletus, Elean schools, school of ancient dialectics (Heraclitus)

Ø Classical period (V - IV century BC) - Schools of Aristotle, Anaxagoras, Empedocles and Plato, schools of sophists and atomists

Ø The Age of Hellenism (IV century BC - 528 BC) - Eclecticism, Skepticism, Epicurus Philosophy, Skepticism, Hedonism.

Description of schools:

1. Pythagorean. Pythagoras of Samos, Empedocles, Philolaus. Everything is like a number and can be expressed mathematically. The celestial spheres revolve around the Central Fire.

2. Elean. Parmenides, Zeno, Melisse. The focus is on life. Only it exists - there is no non-existence at all. Thinking and being are one and the same. Being fills everything, it has nowhere to move and it is impossible to share.

3. Milesian. Thales of Miletus, Anaximander, Anaximenes. On the basis of the position “something does not arise from nothing” (the modern Law of Conservation), they assumed the existence of a certain fundamental principle of everything. Thales called it water, Anaximenes called it air, and Anaximander called it apeiron. The Milesians assumed the animation of the world, everything has a soul, it’s just that in the “animate” it is more, and in the “inanimate” it is less, but it permeates everything.

4. School of Heraclitus. Heraclitus of Ephesus did not have direct students, but had many followers at all times. He considered the world to be an ever-moving product of fire (his phrase is “everything flows, everything changes”), and the struggle and war of opposites is the cause of all change. Heraclitus was called Gloomy for the gloominess of his views, the vision of war in everything.

5. School of Aristotle. The soul is the entelechy of the body (entelechy is an internal force that contains the ultimate goal and result). The origin of movement is God.

6. School of Anaxagoras. Anaxagoras proclaimed that the basis of everything are small "seeds" (Aristotle later called them "homeomeria"). There are countless types of them, and a certain global Mind organizes them into the bodies of the visible world. Interestingly, Anaxagoras tried to explain phenomena like eclipses and earthquakes by natural causes, and for this he was convicted of insulting the gods and sentenced to death, but was saved through the efforts of his friend and student Pericles.

7. School of Empedocles. Empedocles believed that the world is based on four elements - fire, water, air and earth, and everything is obtained by mixing these elements, or "roots". Specifically, a bone is made up of two parts water, two parts earth, and four parts fire. But the "roots" are passive principles, and the active principles are Love and Hate, the interaction and correlation of which determines all changes.

8. School of Plato. Plato believed the soul to be immortal, unlike the body, and singled out three principles in it: Reasonable, Volitional and Passionate. He considered the main method of philosophy to be dialectics (in the sense of a constructive dispute).

9. School of sophists. Protagoras, Gorgias, Prodik and others. Representatives of the school had different moral and political views. They were united by the idea that any thing can be described in different ways, a penchant for philosophical play on words and the creation of paradoxes, the confidence that everything is relative, there is nothing absolute, and man is the measure of all things. Many were atheists and agnostics.

10. School of atomists. Leucippus stood at the origins of the school of atomists, his teaching was developed by Democritus. This amazing sage said that all bodies consist of the smallest particles - atoms, between which there is emptiness. He also implied the presence in a person of a soul, which is also a collection of special atoms and is mortal with the body. "Only in the general opinion there is color, in the opinion - sweet, in the opinion - bitter, but in reality there are only atoms and emptiness."

11. Eclecticism. Its representatives, Cicero, Varro, and others, tried to create a perfect philosophical system based on a combination of existing systems, choosing from them the most reasonable, in their opinion, conclusions. In some ways, the general acceptance of such a combinative system marks the decline of philosophical thought.

12. Stoicism. The teachings of Zeno of Kita (not the one in Elea, another). The doctrine of predestination, which must be followed, suppressing passions in oneself. Pleasure, aversion, lust and fear must be rejected. The Stoic ideal is the imperturbable sage. Such stars as Seneca and Marcus Aurelius, the emperor-philosopher, belonged to the school.

13. Skepticism. Pyrrho, Enisidem. The teaching of skeptics is that one cannot be sure of the existence of anything. And since it is impossible to be sure of the existence of a thing, then it must be treated as something apparent, calmly and calmly. Ten Reasons for a Skeptical Attitude (Ten Skeptical Paths of Enisedem).

14. Hedonism. The doctrine that the main thing in life and the highest good is pleasure.

15. Epicureanism. A special case of hedonism. "Pleasure is the highest good." This is a teaching that did not aim to find the truth, but only the practical side of happiness. Epicurus' "fourfold remedy": do not be afraid of the gods, do not be afraid of death, the good is easily achievable, the evil is easily endured.

Indian philosophy is undoubtedly a great historical and heritage of world civilization. She absorbed all the best and most moral that was in Indian culture. Its development was slow and gradual. She, like a big river, took in the streams of knowledge of all previous thinkers. Moreover, this included the theories of both ancient and modern Indian philosophers. Oddly enough, atheists also contributed to it.

Indian philosophy is consistent and in its development has not undergone such significant fluctuations as, for example, European. To be convinced of this, it is enough to get acquainted with the saints for every Hindu Vedas. Everything is written in Sanskrit. This is the language of the elite: scientists and literary critics, who are also the pride of India.

Ancient Indian philosophy, as well as all world philosophy, was initially interested in the religious question, although it devoted most of its searches to reflections on the knowledge of the essence of man. In India, there is the concept of darshan, literally it means the contemplation or vision of God himself. Undoubtedly, this concept became the basis for the creation of a modern state.

For everyone, the concept of Indian philosophy is not just words. In their lives they are guided by wise concepts, one of which is dharma. Essentially, dharma is a doctrine, and in our modern understanding real philosophy. Dharma is a combination of philosophy and religion, and in a simpler explanation, it is the moral character of a pious person.

In the course of evolution, she created six famous schools. The first of them is Sankhya, the basis of its concepts is the spirit and soul of a person, his positive energy and creative potential. The liberation of the human soul occurs at the moment of the end of the influence of the material part of nature. It gives the basic definition of the essence human being.

The second school in which Indian philosophy has received its widest dissemination and influence is the well-known yoga. In general, the teachings of Sankhya and yoga are similar, but the second carries more specifics. It highlights the definition of the driving force behind the liberation process, providing descriptions of specific methods for a person to achieve the desired liberation. This theory was happily picked up and used by millions of people on earth.

The schools of Indian philosophy are diverse and represent a set of certain laws of existence. human spirit and moral principles. They give an idea of what place a person with his deep spiritual world occupies in the world community.

The third school is Nyaya. This school became famous for its methodology, which was based on logic. It was taken as a basis by most of the advanced Indian philosophical schools, just as in European philosophy it was taken as a basis. The teachers of this direction were looking for. They believed that it was they who would make a person free. This school defines several criteria of truth on earth.

The next school is Vaisesika. She pays attention to such concepts as separate types of atoms. They are, by definition, driving force and the basis of all movement on earth. The followers of this school endow atoms with consciousness. The source of true knowledge according to the teachings of this school is perception and personal inference.

The Mimamsa school teaches that every person should believe in the Vedas and regularly perform fire sacrifices. Her followers preach complete liberation from material human desires, in return they offer to focus on moral and spiritual life.

Vedanta is a school which is based on the self-discipline of man, his spiritual development and not on some ritual practices. At its beginning, knowledge of Vedic cosmology and its hymns is laid.

The schools of Indian philosophy have brought to society many truths that contain great moral potential, and in all of them an orientation is given to the development of human spirituality, his calmness and organic connection with nature.

1) Veda (Sanskrit Véda- "knowledge", "teaching") - a collection of ancient (25 thousand years BC) Hindu scriptures in Sanskrit according to the Shruti method (from what was heard).

2) Structure (shared the Vedas by the ancient Indian poet and sage Vyasa)

1. Samhitas (religious chants about rituals)

2. Brahmins (books written by the servants of Brahma)

3. Aranyaki (forest lyrics of hermits)

4. Upanishads (the main essence of the Vedas (the concept of Brahman and the individual soul - Atman) is stated - therefore they are also called "Vedanta" (end, completion of the Vedas) and they are the basis of Vedantic Hinduism)

Types of Upanishads: classical (7th century BC) and false (non-classical)

3) Key Ideas

The idea of the absolute (the beginning of existence).

"The Absolute is Brahman":

Brahman - a living being, the father of all things, in its highest manifestations acts as a kind of universal Atman (immortal soul)

thought (thinking)

Prana (breath, energy)

Brahman created everything from itself .

Everything that exists contains Brahman (pantheism)

Life is eternal, because its source is Brahman.

Idea of God.

· God is the first-born (born by Brahma). Gods exist. Asuras (negative) and Devas (positive)

3. The idea of the immortality of the individual soul (Atman).

Atman is neither born nor dies

There is no death - life is endless

4. The idea of eternity and the cycle of life (like the wheel of Samsara).

· Death as a change of life form.

Circulation: heavenly water, atma, earthly water (mortal)

5. The idea of karma (“kar” in this case is action).

· Based on the universality of relations, the laws of cause and effect.

· Thought is the main determining factor of karma. “As our thoughts are, so we become” – Upanishad.

Every phenomenon has its causes and consequences. According to the law of karma, the consequences return to the one who performs the action.

Karma is inevitable, not identified with fate.

6. The idea of many inhabited worlds that we can acquire by the law of karma.

Material (lower)

Spiritual (highest)

7. The idea of a righteous path leading to merging with the absolute (Brahma) (yoga).

4) School classification

1. Orthodox(the only, unconditional authority of the Vedas as the source of higher knowledge)

· Sankhya

Essence: there are two principles in the world: prakriti (matter) and purusha (spirit). The goal of Samkhya philosophy is to divert spirit from matter.

· Yoga

Essence: the goal is to control the mind through meditation (dhyana), realize the difference between reality and illusion and achieve liberation.

· Mimansa (early)

· Mimansa (late) = Vedanta

· Nyaya

Essence: considers mainly the conditions of correct thinking and the means of knowing reality. Recognizes the existence of four independent sources of true knowledge: perception, inference, comparison and proof.

· Vaisheshika

2. Unorthodox(in addition to the Vedas, other sources of knowledge)

· Buddhism

Essence: The Buddha came to the conclusion that the cause of people's suffering is their own actions and to stop suffering, to achieve nirvana, you can practice self-restraint and meditation.

Four Noble Truths:

- about suffering (throughout life)

- the cause of suffering (the desire to satisfy needs)

- cessation of suffering (rejection of desires)

middle way

· Jainism

Essence: Calls for spiritual improvement through the development of wisdom and self-control.

The goal of Jainism is to discover the true nature of the human soul. Perfect perception, perfect knowledge and perfect conduct, known as the "Three Jewels of Jainism", are the path to the liberation of the human soul from samsara (the cycle of birth and death).

· Lokayata (Charvaka)

Ticket 6: Philosophy of Ancient China: basic
philosophical ideas and schools.

Ideas of Taoism

Philosophical schools

4. Legalism - dealt with the problems of social theory and public administration. The idea of universal equality. Representatives: Shen Buhai, Li Kui, Wu Qi, ShanYang, Han Feizi; often referred to as Shen Dao as well.

5. School of names (Mingjia) - mismatch between the names of the essence of things leads to chaos. Representatives: Deng Xi, Hui Shi, Gongsun Long; Mao-gun.

Ticket 7: Teaching about dao, de and wu weiLaozi.

DAO: Tao is the “way”, the essence of all things and the total being of the universe.

Tao (according to the abstract) is the natural way, the law of all things.

Te is the art of properly managing life energy, correct behavior. But Te is not morality in the narrow sense. Te goes beyond common sense, encouraging a person to release the life force from the path of everyday life.

Te (according to the synopsis) is that which nourishes and nurtures the universal qualities, the attributes of Tao.

Lao Tzu o Te

"Creating and educating the existing; creating, not possessing what is created; setting in motion, not making efforts to it; guiding, not considering oneself the ruler - this is what is called the deepest Te."

"Te appears only after the loss of Tao; philanthropy - after the loss of Te."

Wu Wei is not a complete renunciation of action. This is a rejection of emotional involvement in the action, and only as a result - the minimization of the actions performed.

Ticket 8: Ancient philosophy: features
development and basic schools.

Ancient philosophy arises on the basis of intensive processing of mythological ideas about the world and man.

The mythological idea and the religious idea associated with it are gradually giving way to philosophy, which is distinguished by the desire for a rational theoretical justification of the positive knowledge that the first philosophers possessed (Babylon, Dr.

The main methods of this philosophy are observation and reflection on the results of observations in nature.

Three stages in the development of ancient philosophy:

Ø Early period (Pre-Socratic) (VII-first half of the 5th century BC) - Pythagorean, Miletus, Elean schools, school of ancient dialectics (Heraclitus)

Ø Classical period (V - IV century BC) - Schools of Aristotle, Anaxagoras, Empedocles and Plato, schools of sophists and atomists

Ø The Age of Hellenism (IV century BC - 528 BC) - Eclecticism, Skepticism, Epicurus Philosophy, Skepticism, Hedonism.

Description of schools:

1. Pythagorean. Pythagoras of Samos, Empedocles, Philolaus. Everything is like a number and can be expressed mathematically. The celestial spheres revolve around the Central Fire.

2. Elean. Parmenides, Zeno, Melisse. The focus is on life. Only it exists - there is no non-existence at all. Thinking and being are one and the same.

Diversity of Philosophical Schools of Ancient India

Being fills everything, it has nowhere to move and it is impossible to share.

5. School of Aristotle. The soul is the entelechy of the body (entelechy is an internal force that contains the ultimate goal and result). The origin of movement is God.

11. Eclecticism. Its representatives, Cicero, Varro, and others, tried to create a perfect philosophical system based on a combination of existing systems, choosing from them the most reasonable, in their opinion, conclusions. In some way, the general acceptance of such a combinative system marks the decline of philosophical thought.

14. Hedonism. The doctrine that the main thing in life and the highest good is pleasure.

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Textbook Ya. S. Yaskevich "Fundamentals of Philosophy" decomposed into chapters. The electronic version of the book and the software of the graduation project of the same name made on the basis of this book can be downloaded from the page Diploma, term papers and tests.

Philosophy of Ancient India

The first philosophical texts of the Indian tradition were Upanishads(end of II millennium BC). They were an interpretation of ancient sacred texts - the Vedas, intended for cult use. Already in the Upanishads, the main themes of Indian philosophy are formed: the idea of a single, infinite deity and the doctrine of karma and rebirth.

A number of Upanishadic hymns speak of a self-sufficient deity. All other gods are only manifestations of him. He is the creator, preserver and destroyer of all things. He is the most complete and most real being. He is incorporeal Brahman. The manifestation of Brahman is Atman- the inner immortal "I" of the world, the "world soul". The world soul is identical to the individual human soul. The individual Atman is uncreative and indestructible, its ultimate goal is to merge with the world soul. True Purpose human life- in the destruction of the causes that prevent liberation Atman from outer covers, physical and spiritual shells. The same one who reckless and unclean, will not reach this state, but will enter the cycle of birth and death, into the chain of dependent rebirths determined by karma, the cumulative result of thoughts, words and deeds of a person.

From the 6th century BC e. time starts classical philosophical systems. It is customary to distinguish between orthodox (or brahminical) systems of thought who accept the authority of the Vedas as Revelation, and unorthodox systems, denying the uniqueness of the authority of the Vedic texts. To unorthodox systems rank Buddhism and Jainism. The six most influential classical orthodox systems (schools) are nyaya and vaisheshika, sankhya and yoga, vedanta and mimamsa form three pairs of friendly doctrines, recognizing and supplementing each other's main provisions.

Jainism originated in line with the hermit tradition, which polemicized with orthodox Vedism. Nevertheless, the doctrine of Jainism develops a number of the ideas of the Upanishads. Thus, the concept of the rebirth of the soul leads the Jains to the conclusion that everything that exists in the world has a soul: animals and insects, plants and leaves. Jiva individual souls who are naturally capable of perfection, and adjiva- space, ether, matter, which are the main constituent parts peace.

Philosophy of Buddhism
From book

religious doctrine Buddhism evolved in polemic with the orthodox Brahminist idea of a substantial soul - atman. If in most Brahmanist systems the atman was considered as a temporary form of the highest spiritual substance that opened the world through a series of emanation, and the liberation of the atman was interpreted as its merger with this cosmic creative principle, then Buddhism put forward the idea of the absence of the soul as an integral, eternal and unchanging principle.

Brahminist systems arise in controversy with the Buddhist point of view on the nature of man, the nature of salvation and the possibility of knowing the world.

Nyaya(“entry into the subject”) is a philosophical school that studies the mechanism of cognition and determines the rules for conducting a discussion, which made knowledge of its principles mandatory for anyone involved in systematic philosophizing.

Vaisheshika("philosophy of differences") - a system related to Nyaya.

Briefly about the philosophy of India

It proceeds from the fundamental cognizability of the world and considers adequate knowledge as the main goal of systematic thinking. The main theme of this school is the classification and characterization of the objects under consideration.

School Samkhya proceeds from the premise of the existence of two eternal principles in the world: purusha - the beginning, similar to the spirit, and prakriti - matter. Purusha is conscious but completely passive and cannot create anything by itself, while prakriti is active. However, this active principle is devoid of consciousness. The world arises only from the interaction of both principles.

Sankhya is the theoretical basis for yoga– a practical technique for achieving liberation. However, unlike Samkhya, yoga contains the idea of a supreme personal deity. The method of yoga is based on the belief that a person, with the help of concentration of spiritual forces, meditation and asceticism, leading to calming of the temper, can achieve liberation from the material - prakriti.

Vedanta("completion of the Vedas") - a doctrine that was completed at the end of the 8th century - the most influential trend in Indian philosophy. Its doctrine is based primarily on the interpretation of the Upanishads.

Philosophy of Vedanta
From book
"History of Philosophy in Schemes and Comm."

Mimansa- a school adjoining the Vedanta. Its central problem is the knowledge and description of the true ritual necessary for one who wishes to achieve salvation. Within the mimamsa, the purwamimansa is usually distinguished. Study dharma- the life duty of a person - the main theme of purva = mimamsa. Jaimini (c. 5th century BC) in the Mimansa Sutra or Jaimi-ni Sutra describes various types of sacrifices and their purposes.

Thus, the features of Eastern philosophical thinking are associated with an understanding of the place of man in the world, specific to Indian and Chinese cultures. The ideal of human existence in these traditions is not so much the realization of oneself in the subject area, but the focus on getting used to the environment and the focus of human activity on one's own inner world, which determines the rational and practical orientation of the philosophy of Ancient China and the religious and mythological nature of the main philosophical schools. Ancient India.

Ancient Indian philosophy is characterized by development within certain systems, or schools, and dividing them into two large groups.

Philosophy of ancient India

The first group is the orthodox philosophical schools of Ancient India, recognizing the authority of the Vedas (Vedanta (IV-II centuries BC), Mimansa (VI century BC), Sankhya (VI century BC). e.), Nyaya (III century BC), Yoga (II century BC), Vaisheshika (VI-V century BC)). The second group is unorthodox schools that do not recognize the authority of the Vedas (Jainism (IV century BC), Buddhism (VII-VI century BC), Charvaka-Lokayata).

Yoga is based on the Vedas and is one of the Vedic philosophical schools. Yoga means "concentration", the sage Patanjali (II century BC) is considered its founder. Yoga is a philosophy and a practice. Yoga is an individual path of salvation and is intended to achieve control over feelings and thoughts, primarily through meditation. In the yoga system, faith in God is considered as an element of a theoretical worldview and as a condition for practical activity aimed at liberation from suffering. Connection with the One is necessary for the realization of one's own unity. With the successful mastery of meditation, a person comes to the state of "samadhi" (ie, the state of complete introversion, achieved after a series of physical and mental exercises and concentration). In addition, yoga includes the rules of eating. Food is divided into three categories according to the three modes of material nature to which it belongs. For example, food in the Huns of ignorance and passion is capable of multiplying suffering, misfortune, illness (first of all, this is meat). Yoga teachers pay special attention to the need to develop tolerance towards other teachings.

Jainism. The Jain school arose in the 6th century BC on the basis of the development of the teachings (sages). It is one of the unorthodox philosophical schools of ancient India. The philosophy of Jainism got its name from one of the founders - Vardhamana, nicknamed the winner ("Gina"). The goal of the teachings of Jainism is to achieve a way of life in which it is possible to liberate a person from passions. Jainism considers the development of consciousness to be the main sign of the human soul. The degree of consciousness of people is different. This is because the soul tends to identify itself with the body. And despite the fact that by nature the soul is perfect and its possibilities are unlimited, including the possibilities of cognition; the soul (bound by the body) also bears the burden of past lives, past actions, feelings and thoughts. The reason for the limitations of the soul is in attachments and passions. And here the role of knowledge is enormous, only it is able to free the soul from attachments, from matter. This knowledge is transmitted by teachers who have conquered (hence Gina - Winner) their own passions and are able to teach this to others. Knowledge is not only obedience to the teacher, but also the right behavior, the way of action. Liberation from passions is achieved through asceticism.

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What is yoga

Yoga is a combination of various spiritual, mental and physical practices developed in different directions of Hinduism and Buddhism and aimed at managing the mental and physiological functions of the body in order to achieve an elevated spiritual and mental state by the individual. In Indian philosophy, yoga is one of the six orthodox philosophical schools.

Yoga contains the basics of interpretation of the origin of the world and understanding of human nature, methods of spiritual self-improvement. The concept of this doctrine has a huge number of admirers. As a special system of ancient Indian wisdom, yoga consists of theoretical and practical foundations, some sections, methods and directions. Mention of the principles of yogic practice is mentioned in the Vedas, Ramayana and Mahabharata (in part of the Bhagavad Gita). The very term "yoga" can be found in the early Upanishads, which are commentaries on the Vedas.

Philosophy of classical yoga

Sankhya is the foundation of yoga philosophy. So, all being includes two substances Prakriti and Purusha. Prakriti represents everything material in existing world. This is something that can be seen, heard or felt in some other way, registered with high-precision instruments.

Under the concept of "Purusha" lies the spiritual principle, the so-called eternal Spirit. Ishvara - God among all spiritual beings - is the manifestation of Purusha. He did not create the world and does not control it, but he is able to unite and separate the spiritual from the material. If Prakriti cannot be realized, then Purusha has consciousness. If Prakriti is constantly changing, then Purusha is not subject to change, therefore it is outside of time and space. He is like an observer of the changing picture of the world.

In the teachings of yoga, a person, like the whole world, is a kind of microcosm that combines Prakriti and Purusha. The material in a person is his physical body, thoughts, emotions, memory, etc. The spiritual, that is, Purusha, represents his consciousness, the so-called "I" - unchanging and eternal. Purusha consciously directs Prakriti. This can be compared to people lost in the forest, where Purusha is without legs and Prakriti is blind. And only by uniting, they will be able to get through the forest and free themselves.

From attachment to the objective world, which gives rise to desires and expectations, a person experiences suffering. As long as we are attached to the forms of Prakriti, we leave imprints (vasanas) in our buddhi (an instrument for perceiving the external world), therefore our Karma will exist - a dependence of a cause-and-effect nature. After death physical body the vasanas remain, but the soul passes into another entity. This is called reincarnation, and a series of rebirths is called the wheel of samsara.

It is possible to get rid of suffering, says yoga. It is the practice of yoga, a set of exercises for the body and spirit, philosophical reflections that will help to realize Purusha, give up striving for something material, and free yourself from attachments. After this realization, the soul leaves the wheel of samsara. The attained being can only be compared with Ishvara - there is no suffering, but there is awareness.

There are many different schools of yoga, but there are 4 main areas of them:

Bhakti - the path of love and devotion
Jnana - the path of knowledge
Karma is the path of action
Raja - the path of introspection

bhakti yoga

Bhakti is translated from Sanskrit as love and devotion. Thus Bhakti Yoga is a connection with God through love and devotion. The main practice of this type of yoga is deep meditation. A person must constantly feel close spiritual contact with his deity, literally come into contact with his souls. You need to concentrate on your idea of the high qualities of God as a person, but not a being in the flesh, but a highly spiritual and highly developed entity. After that, a person must realize that he is not just a mortal, temporary material body, but an eternal and immaterial soul.

An important point in the practice of Bhakti Yoga is the continuous daily repetition of the Hare Krishna Mahamantra, also called Japa meditation. To do this, you need to purchase or make yourself a rosary consisting of 109 beads, where 109 beads will be the starting point.

Maha-mantra: Hare Krishna Hare Krishna Krishna Krishna Hare Hare Hare Rama Hare Rama Rama Rama Hare Hare.

Through this practice, a person gradually restores the once lost connection with God. This practice is considered Yuga-Dharma, i.e. the most authoritative practice in the coming age of Kali Yuga.

jnana yoga

Jnana yoga is a path of exploration that aims to overcome the limitations of the intellect or logical abilities of a person. Higher awareness can never arise from rational thought. Jnana yoga is the path to intuitive knowledge, and it is illogical - neither logical nor illogical, transcending both.
On this path, a person asks questions about the essence of being and his true nature. Success on this path requires effort, focus, and total absorption in research. Without these qualities, insight is impossible. Insight does not mean getting standard answers, but gaining intuitive knowledge.

For its successful work, you need to carefully adhere to three things:

1) SHRAVAN or listening: listening to scriptures, philosophical discourses, and above all, living Masters of spirituality with personal experience of Reality, who can transmit their life impulse to those who come into contact with them, since it is in the society of a truly awakened soul that a person awakens from its long hibernation.

2) MANAN or thinking: it consists in intense and thoughtful reflection on what is heard and understood, in order to concretize the abstract and make intellectual concepts the pulse of the present life through a careful exercise of discernment, which distinguishes truth from falsehood at every step. This leads to the liberation of the human soul from the loop of egoism by all possible means at his command. It's like churning buttermilk.

3) NIDHYASAN, or practice: it consists in transferring the center of gravity from the ephemeral and changing "I" to the permanent and eternal "I", from the circumference to the center of one's being. This gradually causes detachment from the pairs of opposites—wealth and poverty, health and disease, fame and shame, pleasure and pain, and so on. — in which everyone tends to go with the flow in the normal course of existence.

Karma yoga

Karma yoga is also known as buddhi yoga - one of the four main types of yoga in Hindu philosophy. Karma yoga is based on the teachings of the Bhagavad Gita, the sacred Hindu scripture in Sanskrit, and its main meaning is the performance of prescribed duties (dharma) without attachment to the fruits of labor. As a result of such activities, moksha (salvation) or love of God (bhakti) becomes possible. This happens through the performance of prescribed duties without selfish motives for the sole purpose of pleasing God.

Raja yoga

Raja yoga (royal yoga), also known as classical yoga which is based on the Yoga Sutras by Patanjali. The main goal of raja yoga is to control the mind through meditation (dhyana), realize the difference between reality and illusion, and achieve liberation.

Philosophy of Ancient India - briefly, the most important + LIST OF BOOKS. A CYCLE OF ARTICLES ON PHILOSOPHY. Part 3

Since the practice of raja yoga is divided into eight stages, it is also called ashtanga yoga"Eight Step Yoga"

Pit- norms of behavior - self-restraint
Niyama- following religious rules and prescriptions - full dedication to spiritual practices
Asana- unification of mind and body through physical activity
Pranayama- breath control leading to unification of body and mind
Pratyahara- distraction of the senses from contact with their objects
Dharana- Purposeful concentration of the mind
Dhyana- meditation (internal activity that gradually leads to samadhi)
Samadhi- a peaceful superconscious state of blissful awareness of one's true nature

Sometimes these eight levels are divided into four lower and four higher. The lower levels are associated with hatha - yoga, and the higher ones belong to raja - yoga. The simultaneous practice of the three higher stages is called samyama.

Hatha yoga

This direction of yoga proclaims the unity of the spiritual and physical. With special practices, it allows you to achieve harmony between these two aspects. The practice of hatha yoga is based on the following components:

1. Pranayama - special breathing exercises, the purpose of which is to teach a person emotional self-control. In the process of performing pranayama, massage of the internal organs is also carried out.
2. Asanas - performing exercises in special postures, combined with special breathing techniques and concentration. Hatha yoga is the practice of static exercises that can be performed while inhaling, exhaling or holding the breath. Asanas should not be done on the verge of one's physical strength. On the contrary, they should relax, pacify. It is important that there is no discomfort. The appearance of pleasant sensations during asanas is an indicator that prana circulates through the body correctly.
3. Meditation. Her main goal is to listen to yourself, to throw off all the "superfluous", feigned. In the process of relaxation, physical and psychological relaxation occurs, energy is directed to the spiritual improvement of a person.
4. Shatkarmas - exercises and methods of hatha yoga, allowing you to cleanse the internal organs. Shatkarmas is the general name for cleansing practices. It can be translated from Sanskrit as “six actions”. Indeed, hatha yoga has six practices for cleansing the body:
- Dhauti - techniques for cleansing the digestive tract;
- Basti - toning and washing the large intestine;
- Nauli (Lauliki) - special techniques for massaging the abdominal area in order to strengthen the abdominal organs;
- Neti - cleansing and washing the nasal passages;
- Kapalabhati - a set of three simple techniques to clear the anterior lobe of the brain;
- Trataka - strengthening the optic nerves and eyes, improving vision, developing mindfulness using the technique of intent contemplation of an object.
5. Proper nutrition. In yoga, this aspect is given special attention. To be healthy and content with life, it is enough to eat simple natural food and not overeat.

The practice of hatha yoga allows you to achieve different goals: the awakening of Kundalini - a special energy concentrated at the base of the spine; restoration or maintenance of health, longevity; awareness of one's higher self (atman); achieving harmony of external and internal, the state of enlightenment (samadhi).

In accordance with various sources of philosophical thought, known both in antiquity and in the modern era in ancient Indian philosophy three main stages:

XV - VI centuries. BC e. — vedic period(the period of orthodox philosophy of Hinduism);
VI - II centuries. BC e. — epic period(the epics "Mahabharata" and "Ramayana" are created, in which many philosophical problems era, Buddhism and Jainism appear);
2nd century BC e. - 7th century n. e. — sutra era, i.e. brief philosophical treatises that deal with individual problems (for example, "nama-sutra", etc.).

The work of S. Chatterjee and D. Dutt "Indian Philosophy" lists the following features that characterize Indian philosophy as a whole:

the practical orientation of philosophy, which serves not idle curiosity, but aims to improve human life;
the source of philosophy is anxiety for a person, which manifests itself in the desire to warn a person from mistakes that lead to suffering, although all Indian philosophy is literally saturated with skepticism and pessimism about this;
faith in "ritu" - the eternal moral world order that exists in the universe;
understanding of the universe as an arena for moral deeds;
the idea of ignorance as the source of all human suffering, and the idea that only knowledge can be a condition for human salvation;
the idea of prolonged conscious concentration as the source of any knowledge;
awareness of the need for self-control and the subordination of passions to reason, which are seen as the only way to salvation;
belief in the possibility of liberation.

The main categories of the philosophy of ancient India

The main source of ancient Indian philosophy are considered Veda(i.e. "knowledge") - sacred books written approximately in the XV-VI centuries. BC.

Four Vedas are known:

Rigveda - books of hymns;
Samaveda - books of tunes;
Yajurveda - books of sacrificial formulas;
Atharva Veda - books of spells.

In addition to religious hymns (“Samhita”), the Vedas also include descriptions of rituals (“Brahmanas”), books of forest hermits (“Aranyakas”) and philosophical comments on the Vedas (“Upanishads”, literally “at the feet of a teacher”), representing from the point of view of philosophy the greatest interest.

Rice. Periods and main categories of philosophy of ancient India

The foundation of the world is Rita - the law of universal interconnection and sequence of all processes; the cosmic law of evolution and order, as well as the ethical law of all living beings. Rita is substantial in relation to the world.

The impersonal spiritual principle of the world Purusha- "the first man", which arose from chaos; Purusha is an intermediate stage between chaos and the material world, his eyes became the Sun and the Moon, his breath gave birth to the wind, the world arose from his body. Also, Purusha is the primary energy, pure consciousness, in contrast to prakrits - material consciousness.

Brahma-Cosmos - God, who creates the world, whose exhalation and inhalation are associated with existence and non-existence, and the alternating life and death, lasting 100 years of Brahma (billions of earth years), are associated with absolute existence and absolute non-existence.

Samsara(Skt. samsara - rebirth, circulation, wandering. passing through something) - the suffering process of countless rebirths of the personality and the immortal soul, this is moving into various bodies - plants, animals, people. This concept means worldly existence, the interconnection of all living things. The goal of a person is to get out of this series of rebirths, ending suffering.

Karma- the law of fate, predetermining the life of a person. Karma leads a person through trials, perfecting the soul to the level of moksha (the highest moral level of the development of the soul; such a soul is called a mahatma). But karma can be influenced by your actions, the nature of which “improves” or “worsens” it. Bad deeds bring trouble in the future, good deeds create favorable conditions for a person and, on the whole, have a positive effect even on the Cosmos. The fact is that everything in the world is interconnected, any event has consequences.

Atman- a particle of Brahma-Tvoria. the divine immutable component of the human soul. The other component of the soul is manas, this part arises in the process of life, it is subject to changes (both positive and negative) as a result of obtaining one or another experience.

The Vedas are universal knowledge, characteristic of most of the teachings that have come down to us. ancient world. The Vedas contain many ideas of a socio-ethical and normative nature.

The Vedas influenced the whole of Indian philosophy, the first schools of which appeared in the period from about the 7th to the 1st century. BC. Some of these schools recognized the Vedas as sacred books; these schools are called orthodox: sankhya, yoga, Vedanta, Vaisheshika, mimamsa, nyaya. Other schools did not consider the Vedas sacred (although they could not completely avoid their culturological impact), relying on other sources; the most famous non-orthodox schools are , Jainism, charvak. The views of representatives of some philosophical schools of ancient India had a lot in common, but much distinguished their positions.

Vedanta

Vedanta(Sanskrit - the end or goal of the Vedas) denotes a set of religious and philosophical schools and teachings of Indian philosophy, the basis of which is the concept of "brahmapa-atman".

The concept of "Vedanta" sometimes unites all the traditional orthodox schools of philosophy of Ancient India. However, later, already in the second half of the 1st millennium AD, an independent school of “Vedanta” was formed. In this doctrine, in particular, the question of the identity of the primary absolute - brahman (cosmic soul) and the individual soul of the subject that knows it - atman is solved. Different streams of Vedanta deal with it in different ways. In one case Brahman is identical with "I"; in the other, "I" is a part of Brahman; in the third - "I" is only determined by Brahman.

According to some researchers, Vedanta is considered the most significant and influential philosophy Ancient India; this doctrine is the philosophical basis of Hinduism - one of the most common.

Sapkhya

Sankhya(Sanskrit - number, enumeration, calculation) - one of the most ancient philosophical schools; its founder is wise Kapila who lived in the 7th century. BC.

According to this teaching, there are two principles at the basis of reality: the ideal - purusha, and the material - prakriti. Both principles are uncreatable and indestructible. Prakriti consists of three gunas (sattva, rajas, tamas), which a person does not perceive, but is exposed to them through the objective material world. Sapkhya denies faith in God, due to the unprovability of his existence and the possibility of explaining the emergence of the world without resorting to the concept of God.

One of the main problems of teaching is the understanding of cause-and-effect dependence; those who share the Samkhya ideas are convinced that the effect is contained in the cause even before it arises.

Man, by virtue of his ignorance, connects his soul, his "I" with the body; he mistakenly perceives the sufferings of the body as his own. Therefore, a person should strive for liberation through the comprehension of truth.

Yoga

Yoga(Sanskrit - participation, unity, concentration, order, deep reflection), first of all, it is known for a deeply developed system of exercises, with the help of which a person reaches a special state when he is freed from the material world, his soul is able to merge with purusha, "I" man - with a higher "I".

This system of exercises was used by many other Indian teachings, forming an element of their systems.

By philosophical views Yoga largely repeats Samkhya, but, unlike the latter, asserts the existence of God as the higher Self. Yoga proceeds from the fact that the microcosm is human soul largely repeats the cosmic body of the universe. The conscious striving of a person to improve himself can find some correspondence among cosmic processes; one must strive to master the ability to change oneself.

The basic concepts and actions of yoga: the subordination of the body - pit (control of breathing, temperature, cardiovascular activity, etc.); body position fixed in a certain figure - asana; contemplation of a certain real or conceivable object - ohavana; a state of trance (a sharp change in the mental and emotional state) - dhyana; a special concentrated state of the psyche, in which it acquires the irreversibility of mental processes - samadhi.

Charvaka - Lokayata

Lokayata(Sanskrit - aimed only at this world, having circulation among the people) - arose in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. ancient Indian materialistic system that does not recognize the sacredness of the Vedas.

Charvaka (translated as "materialist", an intelligible word) is one of the later varieties of lokayata.

Charvaka explains the world by the interaction of four elements: earth, water, fire and air. As a result of their combination in various proportions, all things of the material world, including souls, arise. This position is substantiated by the fact that a person does not perceive anything other than matter with his senses. That is, consciousness is a property of matter; there is nothing else in the world besides her. Therefore, the performance of religious rites does not make sense.

Buddhism

The doctrine is founded Siddhartha Gautama Shakyamuni(563-483 BC), who was named Buddha, which means "realized the truth", "enlightened".

Gautama was a prince from the Shakya clan, the son of the Raja (monarch, king) Shuddhodhana from Kapilavastu (a city in the north of Ancient India), grew up happy man, married for love, he had a son. But one day, having met a sick, old man, a funeral procession outside the palace, he faced, thereby, with illness, old age, death and realized the imperfection of a world full of suffering. After that, having met a hermit, he also decided to become a hermit in order to change his fate, to find a way to overcome suffering.

After seven years of wandering, Gautama (becoming a Bodhisattva - “destined for enlightenment”) realized that the path of an ascetic does not lead to the elimination of suffering, but after much thought he “saw the light”, comprehended the truth and became a Buddha (it is believed that this happened in 527 BC .e.). After that, he traveled a lot, preaching his doctrine; he had many students and successors of his work, who, after the death of the Buddha, discussed and systematized the legacy of the teacher.

The main idea of the teaching is to free a person from suffering, for which he needs to achieve nirvana - a state of supreme bliss.

The Buddha, in the course of meditation, formulated four noble truths:

life is full of suffering;
the causes of suffering are the thirst for fame, pleasure, profit and life itself;
suffering can be eliminated;
liberation comes with the rejection of earthly desires, enlightenment, nirvana comes.

The "middle path" leads to enlightenment - a life that excludes extremes: the "path of pleasure" - entertainment, idleness, laziness, physical and moral decay and the "path of asceticism" - mortification of the flesh, deprivation, suffering, physical and moral exhaustion. The "middle path" involves knowledge, reasonable self-restraint, self-improvement, contemplation, wisdom, and finally enlightenment.

For this, it is necessary to observe five commandments - do not kill: do not steal; be chaste; do not lie; do not use intoxicating and intoxicating substances; as well as eight principles (the eightfold path):

right vision- understanding the four noble truths and your path in life;
right intentions - a firm determination to change your life;
correct speech- avoid lies, rude and vulgar words (words affect the soul);
right action- not causing harm to anyone, agreement with oneself and others;
right way of life- honesty in everything, observance of Buddhist precepts;
right skill- diligence and diligence;
right attention- control over thoughts, they affect the future life;
correct concentration- meditations, during which communication with the cosmos is carried out.

The ontological idea seems to be important dharm. Dharmas are groups of generating elements: 1) bodily forms, 2) sensations, 3) concepts, 4) imprints of karma, 5) consciousness.

They do not exist separately from each other, but in various combinations with each other they constitute the whole idea of a person about himself and the world around him. The whole life of a person is nothing but a continuous stream of dharmas. The constant change in their ratios forms the constantly changing sensations, impressions and thoughts of a person. Each thing arises as a result of the functioning or interaction of other things, and having arisen, it itself influences them, participates in the emergence of new things; those. we are talking about the fundamental variability of being (there is nothing permanent and stable), about universal relativity, and also about the fact that the material world is just an illusion.

In the 1st century BC split into two currents Hinayana(“narrow path of salvation”, “little chariot” - suggests personal salvation, a monastic lifestyle) and Mahayana("broad way of salvation", "great chariot" - accessible to many people). Later, several other directions appeared in Buddhism. The doctrine spread in India and especially (after the 3rd century AD) in China, South-East Asia as well as in other regions.

10.03.2021

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