The concept of being and its aspects. Essence and forms of human existence

AT late XIX- at the beginning of the 20th century, a direction arose in European philosophy, the focus of which is the concept of personality - personalism. The advantage of this trend is the recognition of the individual as the highest spiritual value. However, for most personalists (B. Bone, E. Munier, M. Buber), the concept of "personality" is a spiritual and religious category. And most importantly, the individual as a concrete person is rigidly opposed to society.

2. The main aspects of human existence

The mode of existence of a person is activity, and the main types of activity, in our opinion, are work, play and creativity. Among the main aspects of human existence, one can single out such phenomena as

as freedom, responsibility, alienation, faith, love and happiness.

The ability to act is a generic feature of a person. Activity acts as a direct process of human functioning, its interaction with the surrounding reality. Activity, compared with the behavior of animals, is a more active and more rational attitude of the subject to the world, and it is organically connected with goal-setting, which animals do not have. Activity is a specifically human way of relating to the world, which is an expedient process in which a person reproduces and creatively transforms nature, society and himself.

The necessary attributes of activity are the subject and object of activity, the means and purpose of activity, the method and result of activity. All these components of activity are interconnected and find expression in an act. The latter is related to worldview and value orientation individual. Based on ideals and ideas about the world

creativity can be manifested in the process and results of activity, which also fundamentally distinguishes a person from an animal. In general, a person in acts of activity is capable of transcend, i.e., to go beyond the boundaries of existing existence by striving into the future (into a possible world), expressed in an assessment of the consequences of one's free choice of goals and means of activity.

Activity advocates way of being human, since in activity it expresses himself. Outside of activity, self-realization of a person is impossible. By the nature of the activity, one can judge the degree of responsibility of a person, his social orientation. Activity reveals the dynamics of the individual and social being of a person and ensures its integrity.

The objective dependence of the individual on the necessary conditions of his existence is expressed by his needs. The need realized by the individual becomes a motive that encourages him to act. This is the ideal (subjective) motivating force of activity. Needs are closely related to the interests of the individual (personality), which are a manifestation of his active attitude to the world around him. Interests characterize the subject (concrete) orientation of activity, the inclination of an individual to a certain activity. Actively influencing the world, on the conditions of his existence, a person creates around him a "second nature".

Activity acts not only as a way to satisfy needs, but also as a factor in the reproduction and birth of new needs. In the interaction of needs, interests and practices, various types of activities corresponding to these needs are born. The dialectic of needs and activity is a common source of self-promotion and self-development of a person. Based on the description

In the context of various forms of activity, the abstract concept of “man” is filled with concrete content corresponding to the existence of man in all the richness of his manifestations.

Labor is the main type of human activity. This is the expedient activity of people aimed at the development and transformation of natural and social forces to meet the historical needs of man and society. The whole history of civilization is nothing but the constant activity of people, focused on achieving material and spiritual benefits. Labor as a component of the material and production sphere provides society with the necessary amount of consumer products and guarantees a certain standard of living for people. Labor, therefore, is a necessary condition for the existence of man and society. The content and forms of labor change historically, but it always remains the main type of human activity.

Because of its complexity, labor can be studied in many ways. First of all, we note the relationship between the essence of man and the essence of labor. Labor created man from a social animal. He is the embodiment of the generic essence of man, and at the same time he is a way of realizing his essential forces. At present, society has entered a highly technical and informational stage of development, and the problem of labor has acquired new features that are being studied by various specialists. Not only economic,

but also moral and personal value content of labor.

The subject of labor is a person. Work gives human life a certain expediency and significance. Rights sociologist A.A. Rusalinov, when he claims that a serious threat to man and society is the trend that has arisen in the conditions of a modern market economy.

"destruction of labor", which manifests itself in mass unemployment, disproportionately low wages for workers in some socially important areas of labor activity (education, science, art, etc.).

Indeed, the value of labor is especially keenly felt when a person is unemployed. The well-known Russian philosopher I.A. Ilyin. In his fair opinion, unemployment as such, even if provided or even filled with private and public subsidies, humiliates a person and makes him unhappy. And vice versa, from a universal human point of view, work has been and remains a moral duty of a person, a sphere for the realization of various abilities, an arena of high achievements, a measure of recognition and gratitude from descendants.

Almost any activity, including labor, involves creativity. The last one is human activity that generates new material and spiritual values. In modern concepts of human existence, creativity is seen as a problem of the existence of a particular person in the world, as a matter of his personal knowledge and experience, as a means of his renewal, development and self-improvement. Man is a universal being, and his abilities are potentially limitless. There are no fundamental restrictions for the invention of more and more new types of activity and mastering them. Creativity is the most adequate form of human existence in a person, and the creative infinity of a person underlies the dynamics of his being.

Creativity is always individual and personal. According to the

you V. Rozanova, a person “brings something new to the world is always not common, what he has with other people, but exceptional, what belongs to him alone” (Rozanov V.V. Twilight of Education. - M., 1990. P. 14 ). In the subjective

On the spiritual plane, creativity is a close unity of fantasy, foresight and intuition of the individual. Often it is associated with a special psychological phenomenon - a state of inspiration, creative ecstasy, in which the subject feels a great surge of strength and shows the greatest activity and efficiency.

Of course, we must not forget that, as M. Gorky said, inspiration is such a guest that does not like to visit the lazy. Moreover, creativity requires firmness and courage from the individual, because it is always a challenge to established ideas, traditions and norms. But in this case, as they say, the game is worth the candle. The Creator not only gives himself outside, to people, to society, but also enriches himself. In creativity, a person develops himself, expands and enriches his inner, spiritual world.

Like work, there is play fundamental feature our existence. Play is an activity that combines the real and the imaginary. Play is a special type of enjoyment of one's freedom, one's scope for thought and action. It is no coincidence that the famous teacher P.F. Lesgaft argued that a person only lives when he plays. The game, like love, is submissive to all ages. The Dutch scientist, cultural theorist Johan Huizinga considered the game as a universal principle of the formation of human culture. It was after the appearance of his book "Homo Ludens" ("Man playing") (1938) that the concept of the game entered into a wide scientific circulation. The famous philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein considered language systems in their communicative functions as a kind of "language games". In the first half of the 20th century, the mathematical theory of games was created (E. Zermelo, J. Neumann, G. Morgenstern), which proposed the analysis of decision-making models under uncertainty. Although "game theory" follows

considered rather a branch of mathematics or cybernetics, it nevertheless explores activity as a game in the broadest sense of the word. In accordance with this theory, virtually all activities can be represented as a game (mathematical model).

Despite the fact that the conceptual analysis of the game is difficult, we can give the following definition of it. Play is a form of human action or interaction in which a person goes beyond his usual functions or the narrowly utilitarian use of objects. From a philosophical point of view, the game can be seen as a way to model the connections of human existence. And this concept is important for philosophy as a means of understanding the fundamental relationships between people, between a person and the surrounding world.

Children's games are extremely important in the process of socialization of the individual. They are the most important condition for the natural formation and development of personality. The game stimulates the child to master and maintain the rules of a coordinated being.

The game has a certain significant value as an element of creative search. It frees consciousness from the bonds of stereotypes and contributes to the construction of probabilistic models of the phenomena under study, the construction of new artistic or philosophical systems. However, the highest value of the game is not in its results, but in the very gameplay. Apparently, that's why people love to play so much.

The problem of freedom is one of the most important and central questions of philosophy. But the question is, first of all, is freedom possible at all? It is obvious that there is no absolute freedom, because any of our concrete actions, deeds are determined by something. Apparently, one can speak of freedom in terms of human existence only to the extent that our actions and deeds are personally conditioned, based on our will.

Only the person who is endowed with will can be free. In existential terms, freedom is the ability of a person to master the conditions of his being, the choice of his actions and deeds.

Free will is the ability of a person to spontaneous acts of behavior. It is a component of the essence of man and his life, the individual form of his being. Individuality is the person himself. And he himself ultimately decides what to do in this or that case. Therefore, in its last instance, consciousness and life are free. It is no coincidence that Jean-Paul Sartre spoke about the ability of a person to create his life, based on freedom.

The question of freedom as the relationship between the individual and his activity is closely connected with responsibility. A free person has the opportunity to choose between different modes of behavior.

A responsibility is the ability of a person to behave in a way that measures his independence (freedom) with the actions of other people and various social structures. The normal existence of a person is a responsible existence. And the measure of this responsibility is duty, conscience, honor.

In the process of human existence, situations are possible that lead to the suppression of the freedom and rights of the individual. In this case, they talk about the alienation of a person from some structures.

and values. Alienation is a state (process) of a person's being, characterized by the transformation of activity, its conditions, structures and results into an independent force that dominates him and is hostile to him. Overcoming alienation is seen in the ways of changing social conditions

and value-ideological attitudes of the personality that give rise to this phenomenon.

Faith occupies a large place in a person's life. Faith in the wide philosophical sense is a complex phenomenon of individual and mass consciousness. In this perspective, faith is an integral attribute of a person, one of the central programs of his brain. Man has an innate tendency to faith. In the epistemological and religious plans, faith has already been considered in the relevant topics (7 and 11). Let's add a few words to the above. Faith as an opinion in a broad sense, as vital knowledge, accepted without proof as true, turns into worldview attitudes, into the life guidelines of the individual. In addition, faith is the ability of a person to experience the imagined and desired as real. Therefore, faith is usually optimistic relation of man to the world. This is evidenced, in particular, by the following lines: “Comrade, believe, she will rise, the star of captivating happiness!”, “I believe in the revival of Russia!”.

Love plays an essential role in human life. Blaise Pascal believed that love is an inalienable quality of a person. Indeed, without love, a person is an inferior being, deprived of one of the strongest vital stimuli. Because of love, people went on a feat and because of it they committed crimes. Such is the power of love. Love in anthropological terms is a feeling of striving for unity, closeness with another person, other people, nature, ideals and ideas.

Love acts as a connecting link in the relationship of people in communication, especially in their spiritual communication. It helps to overcome spiritual self-isolation and existential loneliness. Love is based on the common interests of people, their needs and values. The famous Russian philosopher I.A. Ilyin noted that “the main thing in life is love and that it is love that builds a joint life on earth,

for faith and the whole culture of the spirit will be born from love ”(Ilyin I.A. Our tasks. - M., 1992. P. 323). Some thinkers even argue that love can save a person from self-destruction.

The forms of human love are varied. This is, first of all, love for neighbors, for all people in general, for the opposite sex (erotic love), the love of parents for children and vice versa, the love of a person for himself (“narcissism”), love for the Motherland, God, truth, beauty and etc. By the way, philosophy itself arose as a love of wisdom. Of course, love is not only positive emotions and comfort of life, it may require overcoming many obstacles on the way to a beloved object. Thus, Omar Khayyam wrote:

Is there anyone in the world who managed to Satisfy their passion without torment and tears? He gave himself to cut a tortoiseshell comb, Just to touch his beloved hair!

And yet one cannot but agree with the words of Eduard Sevrus (Borokhov), who wrote: “Life consists in love. It begins with love for a mother, lasts with love for a woman, children, the cause to which he devoted himself, and ends with love for life itself, from which it is a pity to leave ... ".

Happiness, like the meaning of life, different people understand differently. And it is no coincidence that one of the popular songs states that "happiness is not the same for everyone." The category "happiness" is very relative. Nevertheless, one can try to give some more or less general definition of this phenomenon.

Often happiness is identified with the full satisfaction of needs, with material wealth, as well as with career success. However, from the standpoint universal values material wealth cannot be the main criterion

happiness. After all, it is not in vain that the people say: “Happiness is not in money.” The latter generally largely depends not so much on the achievement of any benefits, but on the internal state of a person. Of course, happiness is associated with many aspects of human existence. It is connected, first of all, with love, health, communication, including, to some extent, with material wealth. Happiness is not in money, but the unhappiness of the world is in money, including its lack. Many philosophers of the past, when characterizing happiness, also took into account its material component. According to Democritus, "happiness is a good mood, well-being, harmony, symmetry and equanimity." A similar definition of happiness is found in Aristotle. Happiness, in his opinion, is the joint fullness of three blessings: first, spiritual; secondly, bodily, what are health, strength, beauty, and the like; thirdly, external, such as wealth, eminence, fame, and the like.

And yet happiness is more about “being” than “having”. It is closely connected with the comprehension of the value of a person's life. The very process of life, the very existence of a spiritually rich person can bring a feeling of happiness. The last one is ultimately inner peace. Happiness is first and foremost life in harmony with oneself. Arthur Schopenhauer noted that a rich personality, and especially a broad mind, means the happiest destiny on Earth. Therefore, happiness is not some kind of blissful life, but rather a prosperous norm of life. And, unfortunately, we often do not notice this and expect something more prosperous in the future. This may also be due to the person's feeling of her lack of self-realization. All this prevents a particular person from seeing and appreciating the beauty of everyday life. But the feeling of insufficient self-realization has its positive meaning, as well.

how it forces a person not to rest on what has been achieved, to strive for the better, for more complete happiness.

From a philosophical point of view, happiness is the successful implementation of the meaning and purpose of life chosen by the individual, accompanied by positive self-esteem and a sense of satisfaction with life. The connection between subjective and objective conditions of happiness can be expressed by such a general formula - a fraction, where the denominator is the desire of the individual, and the numerator is the possibility of their implementation:

happiness = possibility desire

Thus, in the words of the French philosopher Michel Montaigne, “happy is he who has managed to measure his needs with such precision that his means are sufficient to satisfy them without any trouble or suffering on his part.”

Information for reflection

1. The philosopher Erich Fromm observed: "Character is a substitute for the instincts that a person lacks."

Give a philosophical interpretation of this statement.

2. Determine the philosophical category encrypted in the text below.

“Affirmation of personality” (E. Munier), “overcome necessity” (V. Grossman), “religion of modernity” (G. Heine).

3. Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky said: "To love each other, you need to fight with yourself."

What is the rational-philosophical meaning of this statement?

4. “Bias is the vice (and threshold) of any specialist” (V. Kutyrev).

Comment on the truth of this statement from a philosophical point of view.

5. The famous American President Abraham Lincoln remarked: "My life experience has convinced me that people who have no flaws have very few virtues."

Do you think Lincoln is right and, if so, what could be the reason for this?

Literature

1. Vishev I.V. The problem of life, death and immortality of a person in the history of Russian philosophical thought / I.V. Vishev. - M., 2005.

2. Volkov Yu.G. Man: encyclopedic dictionary / Yu.G. Volkov, V.S. Polikarpov. - M., 1999.

3. Gubin V.D. Ontology. Problems of life in modern European philosophy / V.D. Gubin. - M., 1998.

4. Demidov A.B. Phenomenon of human existence: allowance. for stud. universities / A.B. Demidov. – Minsk, 1997.

5. Maksakova V.I. Pedagogical anthropology: textbook. allowance / V.I. Maksakov. - M., 2004.

6. About the human in a person / under the general. ed. I.T. Frolova. – M.,

7. Samsonov V.F. From a philosophical point of view: Philosophy in questions and tests / V.F. Samsonov. - Chelyabinsk, 2004. Topic 11.

8. Teilhard de Chardin P. The phenomenon of man / P. Teilhard de Chardin. -

9. Philosophy: textbook. allowance / ed. V.N. Lavrinenko. - M., 1996.

10. Fromm E. The human soul / E. Fromm. - M., 1992.

In colloquial language, the term "being" has three main meanings. Being means an objective reality that exists independently of our consciousness. The word "being" is used to generalize the conditions of the material life of people and society. Finally, being is a synonym for another word - "existence". To be means to exist.

In philosophy and some other sciences, the concept of being is also multi-valued and represents an important worldview problem. The understanding of being is historically connected with one or another orientation of a person, social communities regarding the inner and outer world of people's lives. Depending on the choice, which may be based on science, religious faith, mysticism, fantasy, practical life, and being is determined. Philosophy as a science considers the problem of being the basis of the theory of a general and specific type of worldview, the main part of metaphilosophy.

In a broad problematic aspect, the concept of "being" covers everything that exists, that is, that is present. The category of being is extremely broad in scope and diverse in content. Existence is related to non-existence - to that which is not, and also to that which cannot be at all.

More specifically, being means the entire existing material world. Sometimes the material world is interpreted as an objective reality, that is, existing independently of a person and his consciousness. There is some inaccuracy in this explanation. It consists in the fact that the term "objective" in this case does not cover everything that exists independently of a person. Outside and independently of our consciousness, there are many forms of the ideal. Thus, the use value of a commodity, the beauty of nature, goodness as a manifestation of the morality of society are intangible. The consciousness of one person as a subjective reality for him in relation to the consciousness of another person also exists objectively. It is independent of the consciousness of the second individual.

The objectivity of the material one way or another can be substantiated experimentally, empirically. For example, there is no special need to prove the existence of nature, the cosmos, independent of man and his consciousness. It is already more difficult to justify the independence of the physical existence of a person, his body from consciousness. The judgment that a person is a particle, an element of the natural world, and therefore an objective reality, is an inferential, logical knowledge. It requires additional argumentation in relation to the psychophysical and spiritual characteristics of a person.

Justifying the existence of an objectively ideal is more difficult. Various experiments and experiences can only indirectly prove or disprove something. The argumentation of the objectively ideal is carried out mainly logically and worldview. And often based on faith. So, G. Hegel logically proved the existence of an absolute idea (absolute spirit). God in religious philosophy and theology is also justified logically or simply taken for granted.

Therefore, the existence of the objective world embraces, on the one hand, everything material, existing outside and independently of man and his consciousness, and, on the other hand, everything ideal, also existing outside and independently of man. The very understanding of the objective is connected with a person as a subject with consciousness, that is, with the subjective.

The objective material world is nature, the universe, space. It is difficult to generalize an objective ideal world in some other extreme general terms. It is as diverse as the material world, but in many respects it still depends on the subjectivity of a person, on his ability to fantasize, foresee, anticipate, and assume. Often the ideal image of consciousness is alienated from a person and begins to exist, as it were, objectively, independently. For example, the thinkers of the past are long gone as physical representatives of the human race, but their ideas have been preserved, they are used by modern humanity.

Solving their problems, many sciences turn to the problem of being. Some of them specifically study being, its features, structure, forms. Thus, fundamental physics and chemistry are the basic sciences, on the basis of which the natural-science picture of the world (being) is formed. Mathematics develops and substantiates its model of being. Biology develops the concept of being alive. Philosophy basically solves the problem of being in a worldview, complementing given explanation knowledge of natural, technical and social sciences. It consists in the fact that being is argued using certain value, epistemological and other orientations of the philosopher, should not be accepted as the only possible or correct one, but only as a starting point, as a position.

The main philosophical problems of being include: the definition of being; substantiation of its types and forms; the problem of the uniqueness and unity of being; the ratio of eternity and indestructibility of being as a whole and finiteness, the annihilation of its specific elements; the ratio of the unity and integrity of being with the diversity and relative independence of the content elements; the problem of the independence of being from man and the objective involvement of man in being, etc. An important philosophical problem is the relationship between possible (potential) and real (actual) being.

The fundamental problem of philosophy is traditionally considered the ratio of material and ideal (non-material) being. In the philosophy of Marxism, this problem was designated as the main question of philosophy. It was formulated as a question about the relation of thinking to being, the spirit to nature. In this context, life was understood as the material world.

The ratio of material and ideal, nature and spirit is considered in two main positions. The first position (or the first side of the main question of philosophy) clarifies the primacy of the material or ideal. The second position (or the second side of the main question of philosophy) consists in arguing man's ability to cognize being.

Depending on the priority of one or another beginning in the first position, philosophers and philosophical schools are divided into materialists and idealists, materialistic and idealistic schools. It is believed that the line (tradition) of materialism originates from ancient Greek philosopher Democritus, who most consistently and fully defended the primacy of the material. He suggested that the atom is the basis of everything - an indivisible, non-developing, impenetrable material particle. From various combinations of atoms, Democritus believed, and all objects consist. Consciousness (soul) is secondary to the material.

"Line" (tradition) objective idealism was founded, as recognized by many philosophers, by the ancient Greek thinker Plato. He put forward a position about the idea as a special entity, independent of the thing. Not human consciousness, but ideas precede all material objects. The idea, according to Plato, is outside the consciousness of man and things, the existing beginning of everything.

Materialism and idealism, originating in ancient Greece, exist today. Aggravated relations between representatives of these opposite directions in the explanation of the beginnings of being did not always exist. Historically, due to various political, ideological and other circumstances, they acquired a conflict character. For example, in the European Middle Ages, in the struggle between supporters of Marxist philosophy and its opponents in the second half of the 19th - first half of the 20th centuries. Arguments in favor of materialism or idealism often acquired an ideological character. The consequence of this kind of discussion was a retreat into abstract scholastic and speculative reasoning. Mutual enmity was escalated, the persecution of persons who did not share the established point of view was undertaken.

From the second half of XIX century and until the 80s of the XX century, ideological in solving the main question of philosophy was expressed in the absolutization of the class approach to the analysis of social processes. Marxism extended the class approach to the explanation of the extremely broad problems of being. It was believed, for example, that only the working masses and their supporters were the bearers of the materialistic, that is, the scientific worldview. The bourgeoisie, landlords and feudal lords are all idealists and are not able to form scientific outlook.

Today, the opposition between materialistic and idealistic positions in philosophy has become less obvious and conflicting. The solution to the problem of the primacy of this or that beginning of being is ideological and methodological. Strictly scientifically, using experiment, the achievements of natural and other sciences, it is impossible to prove or disprove the primacy of material or ideal being. For example, the judgment that the cosmos has always existed and, therefore, is primary in relation to any forms of the ideal, is ideological. It can be substantiated only formally and logically, but not experimentally, or accepted without any proof, on faith. This judgment gives rise to a number of other philosophical questions; if the cosmos has always existed, then how can this be? If the cosmos is unlimited, then how should this be understood by man? How to explain the infinity of the cosmos in relation to the finiteness of its specific elements and states. It is also possible to answer such questions only ideologically. Therefore, it is hardly possible to assert that the materialistic approach is correct or even scientific in relation to the incorrect idealistic approach. The opposite argument is also untenable.

Materialism and idealism are two variants of the ideological explanation of being. They are complemented by dualism - another option, when the material and the ideal are recognized as existing simultaneously. It also represents an ideological position regarding the "hierarchy" of material and ideal being. Philosophy, explaining the relationship between the material and the ideal in different ways, does not form scientific, strictly demonstrative and substantiated knowledge. This is an ideological explanation, the measure of the truth of which will be refined and replenished throughout the life of mankind as "eternal truth". But in general, it is also impossible to dismiss the problem of being as scientifically unsolvable. It continues to arouse interest, encourages new discoveries in specific areas of life.

As you can see, many philosophical problems of being are not strictly scientific, but theoretical and ideological in nature. One or another of their decisions is difficult to evaluate as “right” or “wrong”. Solutions express the worldview choice, determine the type of worldview, its ultimate general orientation. A philosopher or just a person has a natural right to dwell on one or another version of the explanation of being, which suits them more, meets the corresponding worldview ideals and needs.

The understanding of being is also connected with its verbal expression. Often being is denoted by the word "world" or "everything that exists." In modern colloquial Russian, there are 13 basic meanings of the word "peace" and several dozen phrases. Several meanings pertain to the explanation of being. The expression: "The world is, was and will be" is an eternally correct judgment, but has a number of accents. Firstly, the world is the totality of all forms of material in the earth and outer space (Universe, space). Secondly, the world means a part of the Universe, a planet. Thirdly, the word "world" characterizes the globe, the Earth, everything that exists on the Earth. Fourthly, the term "world" is used to differentiate the whole, the system: the inorganic and organic world, the world of plants and the world of animals, the world of man, as well as the world of ideas, spiritual world etc.

Being, like the whole existing world, has these accents. They basically reflect different approaches to the material world. But being, as noted, includes everything that exists. Therefore, the category of being covers both the material and the ideal (spiritual) world. In connection with this understanding of being in philosophy, the problem of the unity of the world (being) is quite relevant.

The expression "being of the world" can be understood as a tautology, as the use of synonymous words. Since being is the material and ideal world, then being and the world are synonyms. But the following must be added to this. Being as everything that exists is correlated with the world in a grammatical context. The world is all that is, and being indicates that it exists, functions. Therefore, the phrase "being of the world" grammatically expresses a simple declarative sentence - the existence of the world. Or: the world exists, it exists, it exists. In this sense, being has, as it were, a subordinate meaning in relation to the world. But this is the formal side of the relationship between the concepts of "being" and "world".

It is important to emphasize that the understanding of being, that is, "the existence of everything that exists" does not allow us to clarify the substantial basis of being. The statement that the world exists does not clarify what it consists of, what “material” it consists of. The definition of the substantiality of being makes it possible to find the basis of its unity. The existence of the world (that is, being) cannot serve as such a basis, since there is both the material and the ideal, which are substantially opposite, incompatible. The material world consists of matter and physical fields. The ideal world consists of ideas, non-material phenomena. The ideal in particular cases acts as its property in relation to the material. For example, consciousness is a property of the human brain and the person himself. But everything - both material and ideal - exists, but it is impossible to unite them, since the ideal in relation to the material is nothing.

A more correct methodological approach to understanding the unity of the world (being) is the application of the concept of "unity" only to the material world. The world is one in that it is material. In other words, only the material world is united in being, since it has substrativity. The unity of the ideal world is already problematic because the objectively ideal world is incompatible with the subjectively ideal (spiritual) world of man. One can, for example, consider that being, and ideal-objective being in particular, are one in God. In many religions, God is regarded as the Absolute Truth, Absolute Good and Absolute Beauty, as the Creator, Creator. But to explain such an understanding of God as the unity of the objectively ideal and all being can be again only ideologically or on the basis of faith. Moreover, in various philosophical systems there is great diversity in the understanding of God as well as the objectively ideal.

As you can see, the explanation of the uniqueness and unity of the world as being can be different. In any case, it is ideological. But it is important to emphasize that the assertion of the real uniqueness of the material world and its unity in materiality is much closer to the sciences that explain specific types and forms of being. It has more methodological persuasiveness than religious, mystical, objective-idealistic and other justification of the unity of being.

Consideration of the problem of being makes it possible to single out the elements of its content, the relationship of coordination and subordination between them. First of all, being includes two types: material and ideal (non-material) being. As noted, these are not always “equal” and correlated elements. In various worldview decisions, their coordination and subordination is considered very variably.

The structure of material existence can be represented by the unity of three elements: microcosm, macrocosm and megaworld. The microworld is the world of "elementary" particles, atoms, molecules. The macroworld includes fairly large material objects. The Earth, the population of the Earth, the elements of the culture of society are the phenomena of the macrocosm. Megaworld characterizes space objects.

The structure of material existence is also constituted by the unity of its specific forms (subspecies), which differ significantly from each other: the existence of nature, the existence of man, the existence of society.

The existence of nature represents the existence of inanimate and living nature. It obeys physical, chemical, geological, biological and other laws. The being of nature is the Universe, the cosmos, the habitat of mankind. The presence of the Sun and the solar system, one of the planets of which is the Earth with its biosphere and other features, formed a set of conditions that made possible the existence of living things, life. The representatives of the living are man, animal and plant world.

Space is still little explored. Many of its processes and states are incomprehensible to people, but they have a systemic impact on earthly life, on the functioning of the Earth as a planet. The nature of the Earth has been studied in more detail. Mankind actively uses natural conditions and resources for its life activity. Sometimes nature management takes on predatory, barbaric forms, stimulating the emergence and aggravation of environmental problems.

The existence of a person represents the life cycle of each individual, as well as the existence of a person as a living species in relation to the life of plants and animals. The nature of man indicates his inseparability from natural nature, the cosmos. Even ancient thinkers formulated the position: man is a microcosm, the cosmos in miniature. It has all the basic signs and processes typical of nature. It cannot exist outside the nature of the Earth. Moving into space, a person must reproduce or maintain the conditions of earthly life in the main indicators: air, water, food, temperature, etc. In this regard, a person acts as a link between natural (first) nature and artificial (second) nature created by people themselves, their culture.

Human existence is carried out not only in the natural world, but also in society. The social existence of man distinguishes him from the existence of other living species. In society, a person socializes, that is, acquires economic, political, legal, moral, spiritual and other qualities. Thanks to them, he carries out communication, behavior and activity, participates in the reproduction, distribution and consumption of material and spiritual goods. Possessing consciousness and worldview, social qualities, a person becomes a personality. He comprehends the surrounding world and himself purposefully, expediently, actively and creatively manifests himself, satisfies needs and interests.

Thus, human being is an inseparable unity of the biological, mental and social. The actual life of each individual represents the functioning and manifestation of his body, nervous activity and social qualities, spirituality. The unity of the physical and mental, bodily and spiritual, biological and social being of a person is unique, it is not observed in any other objects and phenomena of being.

The life of society represents the joint life of people who have a certain organization - social institutions, material and spiritual benefits, as well as norms and principles, a system of social (public) relations. In society, as a separate part of natural being, not only universal, but also general sociological laws, as well as laws of a more specific nature, operate. In society, progressive and regressive development is quite clearly manifested.

The main factor in the progressive advance of society and the way of life of the subjects is human activity. The activity approach to the knowledge of the historical process makes it possible to find the main motives and driving forces of social development, to determine the role and place of various subjects in the creation and use of goods, in the transformation of life itself.

The existence of society is also carried out in the way of culture: in the process of emergence, development and change of socio-historical formations, stages, periods and epochs; in the approval of signs and processes of civilized development. An important feature of social life is the system of social relations. They act as relations of communication, relations of behavior and relations of activity. Social relations are extremely diverse. The main types of relations in society are ecological, economic, social, political, legal, moral, artistic and aesthetic, relations of freedom of conscience, information, scientific, family and others.

Unlike the existence of nature, the existence of man and society is carried out on the basis of goal-setting, expediency, social activity, creativity, foresight, although spontaneous, self-fulfilling processes without the participation of consciousness also take place. The meaningfulness of the existence of man and society is associated with individual and social consciousness.

The being of consciousness is a subjective-ideal form of being. The consciousness of an individual as a special element of his psyche and a property of the brain (higher nervous activity) is ideal. It manifests itself through objectification and deobjectification. The ideal images arising in consciousness on the basis of knowledge of the material world constitute the process of deobjectification of consciousness. The embodiment in practice of ideal images means the objectification or objectification of consciousness. Thanks to consciousness, an individual can carry out conscious, that is, sensually reproduced in consciousness and understood mental and practical activity, manage himself, other people, processes, and perform other actions. With the help of consciousness, a choice is made, goals are set and tasks are defined, plans are outlined, means and methods for their implementation are selected. The possession of consciousness gives a person the ability to carry out constructive and creative activities, to create a "second nature" as the main element of culture.

The consciousness of social groups and communities is generally denoted by the terms "social consciousness" or "consciousness of society". With all the conventions of this designation, it allows us to correlate the public consciousness with the individual consciousness, to identify common features and differences. Social consciousness manifests itself as a collective-spiritual property of social communities, which does not have a material carrier of the social brain. Consciousness as a property of the human brain is always individual. But people find some common ideas, knowledge, ideals, jointly develop various plans, and carry out specific actions based on them. What is common in the minds of many people, expressed with varying degrees of completeness and depth, forms the social consciousness.

The existence of individual and social consciousness is also carried out through the functioning of its main content - worldview. The existence of a worldview is associated with the formation and implementation of a picture of the world, as well as the positions of the subject in relation to himself, other people, and the surrounding reality.

The picture of the world as the information basis of the worldview has historically changed and is constantly updated. The primitive-ordinary perception of being, which existed at the dawn of mankind, was supplemented by religious-mythological and abstract-logical elements. Gradually, theoretical knowledge acquired dominance, and in them - scientific knowledge. The modern picture of the world includes natural-science, scientific-technical and social-humanitarian components, as well as relevant everyday knowledge and beliefs. Religious-philosophical and secular-scientific elements coexist in it. It is burdened with understanding of global, regional and national-state problems.

Thus, being in the philosophical sense represents everything that exists, known or unknown to man. Man himself is an element of being, possessing an important feature - consciousness (soul). The structure of being is characterized by the ratio of material and ideal being, potential and actual being, being of nature, man and society. The material world can be structurally represented by the unity of micro-, macro-, and mega-worlds. The problem of being is one of the most important philosophical and methodological problems of the theory of the universal. The theory of being has received a special name - ontology.

The correlation and interaction of matter and consciousness act as a concretization of being, its main types - material and ideal being. Man in the process of his life exists, first of all, as a material and physical being, establishes and implements diverse connections with the outside world. The material world is the sphere and conditions of human life. Therefore, knowledge about the material world is necessary for every individual.

But people build their lives consciously. They set goals and define tasks, comprehend themselves and others, the material world, choose the appropriate way and means to achieve ideals, creatively solve many other problems based on consciousness. Despite the fact that the problem of consciousness is one of the most difficult in philosophy and other sciences, much is already known about its nature and functioning. Knowledge about consciousness, cognition, worldview, spirituality helps a person to find new ways and means of self-improvement. The categories "material world" (or "matter") and "consciousness" are the ultimate foundations of being. Limiting in the sense that it is difficult to find broader concepts that characterize being. The concept of "objective being" can also be understood as extremely broad, but it still exists in relation to consciousness. Whether it exists outside of a person and his consciousness - this question can be answered positively only using certain assumptions. And no one doubts that there is a material world and a person with his consciousness. The recognition of the material world as autonomous and self-sufficient is the basis of materialism. Idealism substantiates objectively ideal (transcendental) being in order to show the emergence from it sensory world.

Understanding matter (the material world) underlies the scientific explanation of reality, the development of specific sciences. The structure and regularities of the functioning of the material world are primarily devoted to modern concepts of natural science. The first ideas about the material world are contained in almost all ancient philosophical views. In ancient Indian philosophy, there was a term "prakriti", meaning "matter", "nature", other more specific concepts to reflect the material. In ancient Chinese philosophy, the following terms were used: "material chaos", "yin" - heavy and dark material particles of the feminine principle, "yang" - light and light material particles of the masculine principle.

AT ancient Greek philosophy a detailed explanation was given to many concepts expressing the primary substantiality of the material: space, thing, earth, water, air, fire, atom, apeiron, etc.

Subsequently, as the problem of material existence became actual, many thinkers turned to it. AT modern philosophy the problem of matter is somewhat muted. It is considered in connection with common problem being, and in more detail - natural sciences.

The concepts of "matter", "material world", "cosmos", "nature", "objective material being" can conditionally be considered identical. Although, for example, the concept of "space" does not always include the material existence of man and society. Until the middle of the 19th century, mechanistic views of matter dominated. Its attributes were considered: divisibility to an atom, the presence of mechanical motion, independence from the properties of space, inertia, etc. Only substance was recognized as a substrate (material) of matter. Here is how, for example, D.I. Mendeleev: “Substance or matter,” he wrote, “is something that, filling space, has weight, that is, represents a mass ...”*. Subsequently, with the accumulation of knowledge about nature, physical fields were included in the understanding of matter, as well as material substrates, which exist as substances under certain conditions, and as elements of physical fields under other conditions. So far, modern natural science has not been able to detect other types of material.

Matter is the totality of things and physical fields, as well as other formations that have a substrate, the material of which they are composed. Matter or the material world is a kind of being that correlates with separate (non-material) being. This is the ontological understanding of matter.

matter also philosophical category, which denotes (covers) everything that exists, having a material or energy substrate. The concept of matter in terms of its volume extends to all material, really existing objects, regardless of whether they are known to man or not. In terms of content, the concept of matter captures the most important, essential (attributive) properties and features characteristic of the material. These attributes of matter include: substrativity; infinity, indestructibility and indestructibility of the total material; finiteness, emergence (creativity) and annihilation of concrete material objects; traffic; space; time; reflection, etc. The philosophical category of matter and its characteristics reveal the epistemological aspect of understanding the material world, the extent to which humanity has studied the surrounding real world.

The most accurate definition of matter, containing ontological and epistemological aspects, was given by V.I. Lenin. “Matter,” he wrote, “is a philosophical category for designating an objective reality that is given to a person in his sensations, which is copied, photographed, displayed by our sensations, existing independently of them”*. It should be noted that the term "objective reality" in the definition means matter that exists really and independently of a person. It was noted above that outside of a person and independently of his consciousness, the ideal can also exist. At the same time, the human body does not exist objectively in everything, that is, independently of it and its consciousness. The dependence of the human body on itself is very significant in terms of regulation, motivation, maintenance of normal functioning and other parameters. This is the uniqueness of human being as a unity of physical and mental, material and spiritual.

The structure of matter can be represented on various grounds. Depending on the main modes of existence, the following are distinguished: inanimate nature in the unity of elementary particles, atoms, molecules, macrobodies, star systems, galaxies and metagalaxies of matter and antimatter, as well as physical fields; wildlife as the totality of the existence of protein bodies, living cells, organisms, populations, biocenosis and the biosphere, as well as nerve cells, nerve nodes, nervous systems that form the basis for the existence of plants and animals; a person in the unity of the physical and mental, material and bodily; society as an isolated part of nature and as a combination of individuals, material culture and practical activities of subjects, material and physical relations and institutions.

Depending on the natural-science classification of the material world, the material world is distinguished in it: physical vacuum, plasma, physical field, substance. Substance exists as a microcosm (10-14 - 10-8 cm), a macrocosm (10-8 cm - 3.1016 km) and a megaworld (endless space). scientific knowledge about the structure of the material world are constantly being developed and refined. The forms or modes of existence of matter denote those general characteristics that are inherent in the various conditions of its organization and change. They are more deeply and fully studied by specific sciences.

The forms (methods) of the existence and movement of matter are: physical (the world of atoms and quarks, elementary particles), chemical (the world of molecules of inanimate and living nature, cellular structure); biological (living organisms and populations), social (life activity of people in society based on labor activity, language and consciousness).

In the evolution of the Earth's biosphere as the highest stage of development of the macroworld and in the megaworld, three forms of existence of matter are specially distinguished: ecological (biosphere), geological (planets) and space (star systems, galaxies, the Universe) forms of motion. On the threshold of the 21st century, science has come close to explaining the emergence of matter not on the basis of myths, beliefs or logical speculation, but using the available accurate knowledge of synergetics, space physics and other sciences. There is a concept according to which matter arose from the state of instability of a non-equilibrium system - quantum vacuum. Quantum vacuum is treated as if it were a form of matter capable, under certain conditions, of leading to the emergence of material particles from it. It differs from "nothing" in that it has universal constants as an analogue of unity. Undoubtedly, there are many assumptions and assumptions in this understanding of the quantum vacuum, but there are enough accurate data.

The process of the emergence of matter is represented by the following stages. The quantum vacuum performs spontaneous fluctuations (appearance of unobservable, intermediate, appearing and immediately disappearing particles). But such particles "have time" to interact, causing transformations of quanta. In this case, a quantum is understood as an indivisible portion of some quantity (energy, particles, etc.). Due to this fluctuation, the quantum vacuum becomes observable, reveals itself, and can also accidentally come into a state of special excitation. Then there may come (and in the case of the emergence of matter has come) the moment of the critical state of vacuum - the point of bufurcation. This is a turning point in the development of the cosmic vacuum. It characterizes the decay of unstable (fluctuating) particles into matter (permanent particles) and radiation. This leads to the appearance of such characteristics of matter as space and time. As a result of this process, stable particles with a constant mass are formed, and their "life" begins - being in the space-time continuum. Entropy as a measure of the disorganization of a system (spontaneously fluctuating quantum vacuum) gives way to information - a measure of an organized (stable) system. With all the shortcomings of this concept, it is more preferable than myths about the emergence of the material or religious dogma. But it is important to emphasize that each person is free to choose one or another point of view on the emergence of matter. This problem is still ideological, not experimental-scientific.

Thus, matter characterizes the material-energy substantiality of being, in contrast to the ideal (non-material) being. Matter has its own characteristics and regularities. The concept of matter (material) is an extremely broad generalization and correlates with the understanding of the ideal. An important variety of the ideal is human consciousness.

Man, like higher animals, has a psyche - the ability to interact with the environment by processing information in the brain and developing behavior patterns. This is a special form of signaling interaction. In the process of mental reflection, internal dynamic properties, states, phenomena and relationships arise that orient higher animals and humans in the surrounding world and in the sphere of their own needs, activity patterns.

The mental states of a person are, along with the external environment, the most important motivational factor. They determine the direction and content of activity to meet the needs and interests of the individual. The essential difference between the human psyche and the psyche of higher animals is the presence of consciousness. Consciousness as a special element of the psyche is possessed only by man. Unconscious, instinctive-reflex mental reflection is inherent in both animals and humans.

Consciousness represents a qualitatively different form and method of mental reflection by a person of the surrounding world and himself, a new motivation for behavior and activity. It represents such a property of the human brain and the person himself, which is ideal. It cannot be weighed, measured, carried out any other operations possible in relation to material objects. The human brain is a highly organized formation and carrier of consciousness. It has many properties. But the ability and uniqueness of the property, which received the name of consciousness, lies in the fact that with its help a person can carry out conscious thinking and practical activities, self-control and management.

Human consciousness has not yet been studied enough. The main difficulty lies in the fact that it is studied indirectly, through manifestations in thinking, communication, behavior and activity, as well as on the basis of knowledge of the human brain itself, its higher nervous activity. It is very difficult to study the ideal, that which cannot be perceived by hearing, sight, or other senses. But it is clear that with the help of consciousness, a person received the ability to realize and understand the perceived information, to use it in social practice.

The essence of consciousness consists in the presence of a number of properties that make up the quality of a given phenomenon and make it possible to distinguish it from other elements of the psyche. The essential properties of consciousness include: ideality, goal-setting, expediency, conscious (controlled, managed, understood) activity, creativity, planning, foresight, etc. Together they express (mean) the essence of consciousness.

The process of the emergence of human consciousness, its essence and content can be fully disclosed on the basis of several approaches. The historical approach makes it possible to find out that consciousness is the result (one of the results) of the complication of the material world, the emergence of man in society as a result of labor activity, verbal communication and the joint way of life of people. In this aspect, consciousness is genetically secondary in relation to a person and his brain.

The epistemological approach reveals the subjectivity of consciousness. It is a subjective image of the objective world, which is formed and exists in the human brain as its property. Consciousness represents a qualitatively different form of reflection by a person of himself and the surrounding world in comparison with psychically unconscious reflection and other, lower forms of reflection - biological, chemical and physical. In the epistemological aspect, consciousness is absolutely opposite to the material world, since it is ideal. In other aspects, consciousness cannot be opposed to the material, it cannot exist outside of a person and his mental activity. The epistemological characteristic of consciousness also consists in the ability of a person with the help of consciousness to meaningfully cognize being and fix the results of cognition in mental forms: sensations, perceptions, ideas, concepts, judgments, conclusions, etc.

The functional approach draws attention to the fact that consciousness is a function of a normally functioning human brain and the person himself. This approach emphasizes the idea that consciousness is an essential property of the human brain, since the function and means the manifestation of one or more essential properties of a material object. The functionality of consciousness emphasizes its dependence on the physical and mental health of the brain and the person himself. With pathological processes in the brain and general physical activity of a person, the normal functioning of consciousness is disturbed and may completely disappear.

The social approach allows us to determine the specifics of the manifestation of human consciousness in social relations. Such properties of consciousness as goal-setting, expediency, active creative reflection, foresight, self-control, understanding, management, etc. come to the fore. With the help of consciousness, humanity forms optimal relationships with nature, created a “second nature” - the leading element of culture, manages social development. On the basis of consciousness, each individual carries out the process of socialization - a meaningful "entry" into the system of social life and the acquisition of social qualities (properties). Human consciousness internally and spiritually determines the motives and content of the self-manifestation of the individual in society, the realization of her abilities and opportunities.

Many approaches to the explanation of consciousness point to its complexity and richness, to the desire of people to more deeply and on a larger scale to know such a unique property of a person. An important place in the characterization of consciousness is also occupied by its structure.

The structure of consciousness expresses the presence in its content of relatively independent elements and the ways of their coordination with each other. Depending on the main states of consciousness, knowledge, volitional and emotional-sensory states, value attitudes and orientations are distinguished in it. Knowledge is a form of thinking, the content of which is "transferred" information about the objects of knowledge. Knowledge can be true, delusions and lies. The measure of subjectivity from true knowledge to knowledge-delusions and false knowledge increases, while objectivity decreases.

Emotions and feelings exist in consciousness as conscious short-term and long-term states that express a person's attitude towards himself and towards other people, towards the world around him. It is important to distinguish between the material and physical processes in the human body as the functioning of the sense organs and their reflection in the entire psyche, especially in its conscious part. The first processes are material, the second - ideal, an element of the structure of consciousness. For a person, both situational emotional states and longer-term feelings are important. Moreover, feeling and its consolidation in consciousness are carried out at two levels: physical feelings (hunger, cold, pressure, etc.) and social feelings (dignity, honor, patriotism, love, etc.).

Volitional states characterize the ability of a person, passing through consciousness, to concentrate his strength and knowledge in solving any problems, to overcome obstacles and adverse events, keeping the body in tension and special care for a long time. Volitional states that arise in a person's mind can accompany the processes of a person's satisfaction of his material, physical and spiritual needs, as well as communication, behavior, and various activities. The will, as a phenomenon of the entire human psyche, cannot be completely reduced either to consciousness or to action. This is a complex property of a person, consisting in the choice of the goal of activity and the internal efforts necessary to achieve the goal. Will has more to do with duty (“I must”) than with desires (“I want”).

Depending on the levels of consciousness, two elements are distinguished in its structure: images of consciousness that arise and exist on the basis of sensory reflection and images of theoretical, abstract-logical knowledge. Both elements are interconnected. The initial, primary level is sensual images of consciousness. They are formed in the direct interaction of a person with the lives of other people, the world around them. Abstract-logical images of consciousness reflect the qualitative, essential, natural in cognizable objects, in objects and processes of life. They are based on sensual images, but deepen and improve them, and through them they are manifested in practice. Two levels in the structure of consciousness correspond to the main stages of human cognitive activity.

Abstract-logical thinking includes two important forms: rational (static, formal) and rational thinking. At the level of reason, the images of consciousness, expressed by concepts, judgments and other forms of logical thinking, function according to a certain and given scheme, template or standard. Reasonable consciousness and thinking express a higher level of rational knowledge, which is characterized by creativity, self-reflection, non-standard thinking, dialectics.

According to the direction of the manifestation of consciousness, two of its sides are distinguished: consciousness directed outward, towards other people and nature; consciousness directed inside the subject or self-consciousness. The outer side of the consciousness of the subjects is more open and ordered, enriched faster on the basis of communication and activity. Inner side consciousness is more personal, individual, closed and less ordered, since the only connoisseur and controller is the individual himself, the social community.

Depending on the carriers of consciousness, it structurally exists as the consciousness of an individual, social group, stratum and class, ethnic and other community, the consciousness of the whole society. The differentiation of consciousness according to carriers is diverse, since a variety of subjects live and act in society, representing not only individuals, but also social institutions. This structure of consciousness emphasizes the varying degree of its sociality. Most often, the consciousness of the individual and the consciousness of society, or individual and social consciousness, are considered and correlated with each other.

The consciousness of a person in colloquial language, as well as in theology and religious philosophy, correlates with the soul of a person. In everyday speech, consciousness and soul are often identified by their ideality and "belonging" to a person. The religious understanding of the soul is different. The soul, from this point of view, is one of the components of a person, mysteriously connected with the human body and spirit. If the spirit is differentiated into human and divine (absolute, world), then the soul of a person, as it is believed, is capable of forming the spirit of a person with the help of which he can enter into communion with God.

Human consciousness "reveals" itself in mental and practical activity, in other forms of social activity of people. This "discovery" is the existence, the functioning of consciousness. The main functions of consciousness are: adequate reflection; cognitive; accumulative (accumulation of knowledge); purposeful (teleological); creative and transformative; function of planning and foresight; axiological, managerial, etc. The functions of consciousness are a manifestation of one or more of its essential properties. Through functioning, consciousness is objectified and deobjectified, that is, it is embodied in specific actions of people, in objects and processes, or exists in ideal images as non-material units of the content of consciousness.

The categories of "consciousness" and "matter" are extremely broad concepts, and the phenomena they reflect are the foundations of being. A person can comprehend being from a variety of positions. But through the ratio of human consciousness and material being, it is most understandable and adequate to explain being itself as a whole, its two varieties - material and ideal being, as well as the main forms: the being of nature, man and society. The correlation of matter and consciousness is one of the main philosophical and ideological problems, which cannot be known in everything by specific sciences or explained by their methods and means. Each person himself has the right to choose one or another version of understanding the problem of consciousness and matter as a worldview postulate or creed, to follow it in theory and in practice.

People in the most distant past, on the basis of simple but constant observations, came to the conclusion that the world around them and they themselves are changing. In the changes, new states, properties, processes, transitions of some objects to others were distinguished. Such changes, in contrast to periodically repeating changes without any visible new moments, are called development.

The problem of development in philosophy is considered in connection with the characteristics of the signs and dynamics of the existence of being. Change, movement, development reveal the essential aspects of the material and the ideal. Substance and physical fields undergo changes, they are characterized by new states and processes, understood by man as development. Our thoughts are also developing, consciousness itself and worldview as areas of the spiritual-ideal. But the understanding of development in philosophy and other sciences is very diverse. Let us consider the main approaches and points of view that explain development.

The first thinkers sought to delimit the development of other changes because of their importance for man, to designate the doctrine of development with a special term. In ancient Greek philosophy, the concept of "dialectic" arose. Diogenes Laertes singled out, for example, three parts of philosophy: physics, ethics and dialectics. He wrote that some philosophers are called physicists because they study nature. Others are ethical because of their fascination with reasoning about human rights. And still others are called dialecticians for the intricacies of their speeches*. The interpretation of dialectics by Diogenes Laertes only implicitly pointed to the doctrine of development. Intricacies, developed logical thinking made it possible to formulate and substantiate new ideas, principles, and win discussions.

In fact, in the philosophy of ancient Greece, there were already several meanings of dialectics:

Dialectics as a methodical refutation of the enemy's theses (Zeno of Elea);

Dialectics as an end in itself of refutation in sophistry and eristics (the art of arguing);

Dialectic as "dia" and "log" is the unity of refutation and maieutics (from Socrates) - the final phase of the dialogue (dispute) in the spirit of irony, when the arguing "freed himself from illusions, errors and helps the" soul "find the truth;

Dialectics - meta-empirical conclusion (general conclusion from experience) (according to Plato);

Dialectics is the analytics and logic of the possible, similar to dialectical syllogism (inference) (according to Aristotle);

Dialectics is a part of logic in relation to its other part - rhetoric (Stoics, etc.).

As can be seen, the doctrine of universal connections and the development of being was not formed immediately. At first, more attention was paid to the connections and development of people's thinking, to achieving their adequacy to the real material world, relations in society.

In modern philosophy, being is comprehended not only in terms of its essence, content, structure, attributive properties, types and methods. It is also studied from the point of view of identifying those connections that are characteristic of being as a whole, for its specific types and forms. In other words, the doctrine of universal connections and the development of being is the most important element of the theory of the universal. It is believed, for example, that the philosophy of being (ontology) includes: the concept (definition) of being; correlation of spirit and matter; self-organization and consistency; determinism and development.

Ontology, in turn, correlates with other elements of the theory of the universal: with the philosophy of philosophy (metaphilosophy) and the theory (philosophy) of knowledge - epistemology.

In various philosophical systems and schools, the doctrine of the connections and development of being is called differently or does not have a special name. But most often it is denoted by the term "dialectics". The doctrine of connections and development was historically formed from the recognition of the variability of everything (being). For example, Heraclitus believed that the same thing is alive and dead, awake and sleeping, young and old, because the first disappears in the second, and the second in the first. He also believed that we enter the same river and do not enter. We exist and we do not exist.

In the philosophy of the 20th century, the concept of "dialectics" is used in three main meanings:

1. Dialectics - a set of objective laws and processes operating in the world in the course of its movement and development - objective dialectics. Part of what is known in this aspect is systematized in philosophy(theory), which is called dialectics.

2. Dialectics is the interconnection and development of images in human thinking. This process is studied by the dialectic of thinking or logic.

3. Dialectics is one of the universal methods of cognition, which is used not so much to obtain specific knowledge, but to determine approaches to the study of being.

Dialectics does not study any change and not any connections, but only universal, universal, characteristic of all being, and attention is paid not so much to the change or movement itself, but to one of the varieties - development.

Dialectics in philosophy is the doctrine of universal connections and the development of being: nature, society and human thinking; being material and non-material (spiritual). This teaching is not uniform in general. There is an internal and external inconsistency in the very functioning of dialectics, which led to its historical and modern alternativeness. But dialectics has a stable content: the unity of categories, laws and principles.

The alternativeness of dialectics lies in the existence of various approaches to explaining development or denying the very possibility of being to development. It can be considered in three main aspects. Firstly, there are different teachings in the very theory of dialectics, due to fundamentally incompatible approaches to cognition and the variability of being. Secondly, doctrines that are relatively independent in relation to dialectics have been formed, which also represent its alternatives. Thirdly, dialectics as a theory and method of cognition has an opposite doctrine in epistemology.

The first aspect includes the existence in the theory of dialectics of two teachings: idealistic and materialistic dialectics. In their interaction and opposition lies the internal alternativeness of dialectics. Idealistic dialectics is oriented towards the substantiation of the primacy of the development of ideas and concepts. Its foundations were laid by Plato, Aristotle, Hegel and other thinkers. Materialist dialectics argues for the primacy of the development of material existence, reflected by concepts, laws and principles. Starting positions materialistic understanding developments were developed by Heraclitus, Zeno of Elea, Lucretius, Marx, Engels, Lenin and others.

Idealistic and materialistic dialectics explain the development of being. In this case, basically the same concepts, laws and principles are used. The essential difference lies in the search for the initial foundations, the beginnings of the explanation of development. Supporters of idealistic dialectics defend the primacy of the development of the spiritual, non-material. Proponents of materialistic dialectics adhere to opposite initial foundations: first of all, the objective, material world develops, and then our consciousness and its content.

The second aspect of the alternativeness of dialectics includes the teachings that have arisen outside of dialectics and constitute its "opposition". These are anti-dialectical concepts of being: "tragic dialectics", "metaphysics of life", "existential dialectics", "negative dialectics", "antinomic dialectics", mystical rationalism, dialectical theology, etc.

The external alternative to dialectics both as a doctrine of development and as a method of cognition is metaphysics. It represents a cumulative doctrine of connections and development, of the methods and forms of cognition, explaining them in a fundamentally different way than dialectics. Supporters of metaphysics defend the independence of the elements of being in relation to their interdependence, recognize the importance external relations, not internal; the source of development is considered to be an external impetus, and not the internal inconsistency of being; the nature of development consists in evolution or catastrophism, but not in the unity of gradual, quantitative and spasmodic, qualitative as in dialectics. The supporters of metaphysics see the direction of development either in progress, or in regression, or in “moving in a circle”, denying the interaction of these tendencies and the development of being, as it were, “in a spiral”.

In the third aspect, metaphysics is opposite to dialectics as a method of cognition. It focuses on the knowledge of being in its separate connections and rest, on the study of individual objects, not systems, it appeals to irrationality. An alternative to dialectics as a method of cognition is agnosticism. He opposes dialectics in that he focuses not on the fundamental cognizability of being in its connections and development, but on relativism, skepticism, irrationalism, and mysticism.

Thus, the understanding of the connections and development of being is diverse and diverse. Dialectics is the most complete and rich in content doctrine that explains development.

Dialectics (idealistic and materialistic) is a system of principles, laws and categories. A principle is the basic, starting position of any theory, science, as well as a belief in something, a norm or rule of behavior **. A principle in philosophy is the basis from which one must proceed and which must be guided in knowledge and practical activity.

The principles of dialectics are universal scientific propositions about the progressive changes of being interconnected in their elements, which are of initial importance for mental and practical activity.

They are formulated on the basis of categories and laws of dialectics. There are two main principles of dialectics:

The principle of universal communication;

development principle.

There are other principles of dialectics: the principle of determinism; the principle of inconsistency; the principle of quantitative and qualitative development of being; the principle of succession; the principle of necessity. They are formulated on the basis of specific dialectical laws, knowledge of the essential aspects and signs of changes in being, in the course of a more specific characterization of the connections of being.

The principle of connection expresses (covers) the whole variety of connections of being and is formulated in the judgment: in being (the world) everything is interconnected.

Communication is a philosophical category that reflects all forms, types and types of correlation, interdependence, interdependence, mutual influence and interaction of objects and phenomena of the material world, logical images of consciousness (thinking). The principle also points to the fact that connections are not introduced into being from somewhere outside. They are inherent in being itself, its types and forms. The main role is played by internal connections, as they determine the integrity of specific objects and systems of being, their unity. Understanding dialectical connections makes it possible to determine a regular connection, a law. Law in philosophy is an essential, internal, necessary, stable and recurring connection of being.

The connections of being characterize the position of rest and movement, statics and dynamics, structure and development. Development is such a movement of being that has a certain direction, irreversibility, mechanism. It leads to a change in quality, to a transformation. The principle of development reflects (covers) progressive - from the past through the present to the future - the change of being, the emergence of the new and the withering away of the old, through the transition from the less perfect to the more perfect. Development is characterized by the presence of sources, driving forces (determinants) and mechanism, continuity, direction and other features. They are concretized in the laws and categories of dialectics.

The laws of dialectics are conditionally divided into basic and non-basic. The basic laws are revealed through several categories of dialectics. Non-basic laws are expressed, as a rule, by paired categories of dialectics: cause and effect (the law of cause-and-effect dependence), necessity and chance (the law of the mutual transition of the necessary and the accidental), etc.

Basic laws of dialectics. The law of unity and struggle of opposites reveals the sources and driving forces of any development. The main categories of law: dialectical identity, contradiction, insignificant differences, essential differences, opposition, struggle of opposites.

At all stages of the emergence and resolution of contradictions, a “struggle” of opposites is carried out: first, as interaction at the levels of dialectical identity, insignificant and essential differences, then - the struggle of essential sides and opposite entities. In public life, a special regulation of the manifestation of the law is necessary in order to prevent the aggravation of contradictions to social conflicts, revolutions and wars.

The law of mutual transition of quantitative and qualitative changes expresses the mechanism of any development based on the interaction of quantity, quality and measure. Basic concepts of the law: quantity, quality, measure, leap. The law leads either to the destruction of the old quality, or to such a modification of it, which is characterized by a "merging" of opposites. In the social sphere, it is important to state in what forms and by what means the leap is carried out when one quality is replaced by another, the old by the new. Preference is reserved for evolutionary social leaps.

The law of negation of negation reveals the continuity and direction of development through the irreversible replacement of the old by the new. The main categories of law: dialectical negation, continuity, direction. The law characterizes the spiral development, indicates that in the new, not only the positive, but also the negative is preserved from the old. The emerging new is not always "consonant" with the progress, interests and ideals of people. In relation to society, the law reveals the unity of progressive, regressive and directionless development with a certain historical dominant, which makes it possible to single out a specific direction of the historical process.

The categories of dialectics are the basic concepts that reveal the essential, main features and processes of the development of being. These are the initial forms of logical thinking, when its object is development.

There are many categories of dialectics. Such concepts as “change”, “movement”, “development”, “connection”, “law”, as well as the categories of laws of dialectics have already been considered. But in the study of dialectics, the so-called "paired" categories are specially considered. They are correlative, characterize development from different angles and are the basis for the formation of other laws of dialectics.

The categories of dialectics are classified on various grounds. Depending on the manifestation in the types of being, categories of development can be distinguished that characterize the material and ideal (spiritual) world. Based on the existence of spheres (forms) of being, categories of development of nature, man and society are distinguished. It is possible to group the categories of dialectics, revealing the natural, essential and accidental, external, superficial in development.

In the doctrine of development itself, categories are grouped depending on the fact that they reveal the manifestation of principles, basic and non-basic laws. The categories characterizing the principles and basic laws of dialectics were mentioned above. The non-basic laws of dialectics reveal “paired” categories: essence and phenomenon, content and form, necessity and chance, possibility and reality, etc.

They reveal the process of development more broadly and deeply than the basic laws. It should be emphasized that all categories of dialectics have specifics depending on what types and forms of being they reflect. If the categories that explain the connections and development of the material world have an objective content and a subjective form (method) of expression, then the categories that explain the ideal objective being are subjective both in content and in form. Such concepts, for example, as "god", "angel", "world mind", "absolute idea", "world spirit" and others are not experimentally verified and substantiated.

They are substantiated in a logical way, through a system of formal logical proofs and rebuttals. Many of them are accepted on the basis of faith. Therefore, they have a "zero" volume, since the material phenomena that they reflect do not really exist.

The categories of dialectics act as a kind of steps in a person's cognition and transformation of the surrounding reality and himself, since each of them contains the sum of essential knowledge about the object of cognition. Mastery of these categories increases the possibilities of people in concrete creative activity.

The categories of dialectics, as strongholds and steps, make it possible to form a worldview, improve the methodological basis of economic, legal and other knowledge, and their application in practice.

Thus, there are quite a lot of teachings about the connection and development of being. One of them is dialectics, representing the unity of principles, laws and categories. Dialectics plays an important ideological, methodological, cognitive and value-oriented role for a person and society.

List of sources used

1. Kokhanovsky V.P. Fundamentals of philosophical science / Kokhanovsky V.P. - Rostov n / D., 2006

2. Alekseev P.V. Philosophy / Alekseev P.V., Panin A.V. 3rd ed., revised. and additional - M.: TK Velby, Prospekt, 2005. - 608 p.

3. Demidov, A.B. Philosophy and methodology of science: a course of lectures / A.B. Demidov., 2009 - 102 p.

4. Kalmykov V.N. Philosophy: Textbook / V.N. Kalmykov - Minsk: Vysh. school, 2008. - 431 p.

5. Kaverin B.I., Demidov I.V. Philosophy: Textbook. / Under. ed. Doctor of Philological Sciences, Prof. B.I. Kaverina - M.: Jurisprudence, 2001. - 272 p.

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Keywords

HUMAN BEING / VALUES / PERSONALITY / SPIRITUAL CULTURE / SOCIETY OF MASS CONSUMPTION/ IDEOLOGY / BEING OF A HUMAN BEING / VALUES / PERSONALITY / SPIRITUAL CULTURE / SOCIETY OF MASS CONSUMPTION / IDEOLOGY

annotation scientific article on philosophy, ethics, religious studies, author of scientific work - Konstantinov Dmitry Vladimirovich, Kholomeev Alexey Gennadievich

Three aspects of human nature (biological, social and spiritual) necessary for its existence are considered. It is shown that the phenomena that make up the sphere of the spiritual are human-creating values ​​that are not reduced to biological or social and cannot be an object of possession. Therefore, the promoted popular culture values ​​of total possession can become destructive for a person.

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The axiological aspects of the being of a human being: human-creating and human-destroying values

Understanding the question of the being as a question of the basis that allow to be, the authors consider the being of a human being as an objective basis or a necessary condition of human existence. Philosophers from different schools of thought try to find such a basis in biological, social or spiritual aspects of human life. If to consider a human being from the biological point of view, the similarity between humans and animals is nevertheless much larger than the difference. Besides, it is obvious that human life cannot be reduced only to the activity of a human body, although without it life is impossible. In turn, the social milieu, in which the individual exists, also does not play a crucial role in their formation as a human in every sense of the word. consequent, bases that allow a human being to be should be looked for in the spiritual. The spiritual is something self-based, it appears in a human being neither from nature nor from society. It is possible to attribute to the spiritual the spheres of conscience, thought, empathy, good and other similar phenomena playing the role of human-creating values ​​. The spiritual being of a human being is inseparably connected with the spiritual culture of society. Artifacts (texts) of spiritual culture first of all are intended to help humans to keep themselves in the spiritual space. At that, in the empirical reality, a human cannot be always good, honest, fair, etc. It would be equivalent to transcending a human to a superhuman (divine) state. However, a human can be truly alive only through the aspiration to the superhuman. The personality is born in such an aspiration. Personality is something that forces humans to seek the order in their life on their own basis. At the same time spiritual culture is very vulnerable and susceptible to all changes, including negative. In particular, the spiritual formation of personality now endures a decisive influence of the mass culture which is based on the ideology of total possession. If any ideology occupies the entire space of human life, this life does not leave place for human-creating values ​​, because they are shielded by ideological schemes. These schemes present a human with ready values ​​which are given as the only true guidance. Values ​​of the society of mass consumption often play the role of such guidance today. It is they that can be destructive for a human because they shield the true spiritual values ​​which cannot be the object of possession and consumption.

The text of the scientific work on the topic "Axiological aspects of human existence: human-creating and human-destroying values"

Bulletin of Tomskoy state university. 2015. No. 390. S. 54-59. B0! 10.17223/15617793/390/10

UDC ::316.752

D.V. Konstantinov, A.G. Kholomeev

AXIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF HUMAN BEING: HUMAN-CREATING AND HUMAN-DESTROYING VALUES

Three aspects of human nature (biological, social and spiritual) necessary for its existence are considered. It is shown that the phenomena that make up the sphere of the spiritual are human-creating values ​​that are not reduced to biological or social and cannot be an object of possession. Therefore, the values ​​of total possession propagated by mass culture can become destructive for a person. Key words: human existence; values; personality; spiritual culture; mass consumer society; ideology.

Introduction

M.K. Mamardashvili, characterizing modern European philosophy, emphasizes that it, by and large, is an attempt "in a new situation of reason to give a person new means that allow him to live in a new world, such means that are not given in traditional philosophy" . Without going into details, we note that under the "new situation of the mind" here we should understand the current situation in contemporary culture an attitude through which the life of a person in the world really becomes problematic, since the person himself becomes problematic. We will try to reveal the reasons for such problematicness through an appeal to the axiological aspects of human existence.

human being

In this article, we are talking about values ​​based on the ontology of a person. The concept of being and, in particular, the being of a person in philosophy is not unambiguous1, and therefore we will try to clarify our own position first. For this, it is appropriate to refer to the works of M. Heidegger. Heidegger considers being as "that which determines being as being, that in view of which being, no matter how it is comprehended, is always already understood" . In turn, this interpretation, according to Heidegger, goes back to the philosophy of Heraclitus. Commenting on the phrase of Heraclitus “one (is) everything”, Heidegger emphasizes: “Speaking more strictly, Being is being. At the same time, "is" is a transitive verb and means "collected". Being collects beings as beings ”(our italics. - D.K., A.Kh.). Based on this understanding of being, we speak of human being as an objective basis or necessary condition human existence. Thus, human existence is what allows a person to be a person at the first step, to collect the human in himself, and at a possible second step - to realize himself as a person, to look at himself as if from a third person, or from the outside.

So, there is a phenomenon of human states in the world, and the question of how such states are possible will be an ontological question. Thus, the question posed implies that the existence of man as man needs a certain foundation. Next, we will consider three aspects of the essence of human

Lovec, who are trying to imagine what the basis is, as a rule, giving priority to one side. These aspects will be biological, social and spiritual in man. Let's take a closer look at each of them.

Hardly anyone will try to challenge the fact that the human body at the physiological level functions according to biological laws. By nature, a person is endowed with a certain set of sensory organs, has a certain life expectancy, etc. All these naturally given features that distinguish a person from any other living being, M. K. Mamardashvili, M. K. Petrov and other authors denote by the term " human dimension ”(for more on this, see:). In general, we can say that the concept of "human dimension" characterizes the limitations that inevitably arise when we consider a person in the discourse of biology. Indeed, man is finite: he is born and dies; he has just such (and not another) body, there are certain vital biological needs; his sense organs are arranged in a specific way, etc. This, in turn, means that a person can do something (see, perceive, understand, etc.), but cannot do something in principle. I.S. Alekseev, to illustrate this, carries out a peculiar thought experiment: “Let's imagine a hypothetical "non-geocentric" subject (not a person!), whose object characteristics ... are significantly different from the corresponding characteristics of a person. While a person has a height of about 102 cm and lives for about 102 years, let our hypothetical subject have a body size of the order of, say, 10100 cm and a lifetime of about 10100 years, respectively.<...>So, it seems to us quite obvious that in the world of objects-things of such a subject there will be neither our atoms, nor mountains, nor even planets and stars, because they simply cannot figure in his "non-geocentric" practical activity, acting as its invariants (Recall that, according to modern data, the age of the solar system does not exceed 1010 years, and the size of the Metagalaxy is about 1026 cm). On the other hand, his external world will contain such (objective in relation to him) objects-things with which we cannot (due to our objective nature) deal with in our practical activity and which therefore "do not exist for us" . Indeed, the hypothetical "non-

geocentric” subject of cognition by I. S. Alekseev is incommensurable with such parameters of the world around us as the age of the solar system and the size of the Metagalaxy. But in the same way, man is incommensurable with them. Therefore, in the words of T. Nagel, it is quite possible to believe that there are facts that cannot be represented or comprehended by people, even if humanity as a species lived forever - simply because our structure does not allow us to operate with the necessary for this concept."

Can we assume, based on what was said earlier, that biology is capable of revealing the specifics of the human phenomenon? It seems that the answer here will be negative. Despite the fact that a person is a very specific and even unique living being, the similarities between a person and an animal from the point of view of biology are still much more than differences. As rightly pointed out by N.M. Careful, the natural needs of a person are "manifestations of that instinct of life that are characteristic of man, as well as the entire genus of the animal world." In other words, to understand the specifics of a person, considering him at the biological level is not enough. That is why we can agree with M. Heidegger, who says the following: “If physiology and physiological chemistry are able to study a person in the natural scientific plan as an organism, then this is by no means proof that in such an “organic”, that is, in a scientifically explained body, rests the human being. This is no more successful than the opinion that the essence of natural phenomena lies in atomic energy. Indeed, human life in the broad sense of the word is not limited to the activity of the human body, even if it is impossible without it.

If the foundations of the human cannot be found in the biological, then perhaps they should be sought in the social? Indeed, such attempts have been repeatedly made in the history of philosophical thought (and are still being made). At the same time, sociality is most often interpreted in a broader sense as something inextricably linked with culture (see, for example:). In a narrower sense of the word, the term "social" implies the existence of certain supra-individual structures, social institutions. One of the functions of social institutions is the function of socialization, the inclusion of a person in the system of social relations. Socialization allows a person to successfully identify himself in society and interact with other people in it.

It is worth clarifying that the social environment in which an individual was born and raised does not necessarily play a decisive role in his development as a person in the full sense of the word. However, it is obvious that outside the society of a full-fledged person, i.e. personality cannot be formed (examples of feral people demonstrate this very clearly). But at the same time, in society, there is often a suppression of the personal principle in a person - that principle, which we just associate with spirituality. Thus, the person

constantly coming face to face with the interests of other people, sometimes he is forced to overcome pressure from society, trying to maintain his inner "I".

In addition to the biological and social aspects, there is a certain special dimension in a person, which we have designated by the term "spirituality". It should be noted that it is extremely difficult to talk about the spiritual in a person, as well as to give any exhaustive and satisfactory definition of spirituality. Therefore, we will not give such definitions, nor will we try to create our own. Instead, let's try to identify a number of phenomena that constitute, in our opinion, the sphere of the spiritual. These include conscience, thought, empathy, kindness, etc. We argue that all such phenomena are autonomous enough to separate them into a separate sphere (the sphere of the spiritual), contrary to the common tradition of reducing the spiritual or to the natural (sociobiology)2, or social 3. In other words, among the possible approaches to the so-called problem of psycho-physiological dualism (it seems that such a name is not entirely successful, if we distinguish between the psyche and consciousness), anti-reductionist positions are closer to us4. We will try to explain the reasons for this in more detail below.

First, we note that being is objective, that is, does not depend on man. The set of sense organs that he possesses does not depend on a person, a person does not choose the society in which he is born, but the moment of awakening does not depend on a person (on his desire or unwillingness, upbringing, social status, etc.) such as love or conscience. This is a kind of aspiration that suddenly appears from nowhere and which a person is no longer able to cancel (but, however, it can be screened). Even the event of understanding (thought) is not completely subject to the will and desire of a person - no one can say when a person will understand something (and whether he will understand at all), despite all his possible attempts to achieve understanding and clarity.

Secondly, a person always looks at the world only through the prism of his spiritual (mental) states, since he cannot leave the limits of his consciousness. Nothing can be given to a person, bypassing his consciousness. T. Nagel notes that, to be completely honest, it is impossible to assert with certainty even the presence of consciousness in another person, since “the only internal experience really available to us is our own”. In other words, the act of interaction between man and the world is further an indecomposable act. The division into subject and object is an abstraction that is convenient for a scientist, but not for a philosopher. The philosopher must be aware that such a division is possible as a purely theoretical construction after the proportionality between man and the world has taken place, expressed in the fact that we are already irrevocably in the world and can look at it with our human eyes and understand it in a human way. Therefore, it seems not entirely correct to look for the cause of a person’s spiritual states only in external conditions.

influences, natural or social. This is true, if only because the very concept of the external turns out to be problematic.

The spiritual being of a person is inextricably linked with the spiritual culture of society, which includes primarily (but not only) science, art, philosophy, etc.5 Artifacts (texts) of spiritual culture, in addition to possible utilitarian significance, are primarily intended to help a person collect yourself as a person. In other words, a person, in order to stay in the spiritual sphere, needs, according to the definition of M.K. Mamardashvili, in "amplifiers or amplifying attachments to our mental, mental and other capabilities" . But even with the presence of such amplifiers, a fully assembled person in empirical reality never happens. Complete concentration would be tantamount to going beyond the human to a superhuman (divine) state. However, a person can be truly alive only in striving for the superhuman. That is why a person is always a possible person, this, in the words of V.D. Gubin, is “a metaphor for himself”. True culture, in turn, should be oriented towards a possible person, which in fact means that a person has the opportunity to be a person. We can say that under the true culture, we follow M.K. Mamardashvili, we understand one that is capable of supporting “a system of detachments from specific meanings and contents, creating a space for realization and a chance for a thought that began at moment A to be a thought at the next moment B. Or the human state that began at moment A, at moment B could be a human state. True, Mamardashvili himself calls such a supporting system civilization, but we prefer to call it culture, distinguishing, following I. Kant, culture and civilization.

So, in order to remain human, a person must constantly be in the creative process, each time rethinking and creating himself anew. It is in this process that personality emerges. Personal - this is what makes a person strive to streamline his life on his own grounds. So, for example, a personal act of observing the law (breaking the law is the destruction of order in society, and at the same time in the soul of the one who violated the law) does not imply following the tradition (everyone observes, including me) and not the fear of punishment, but some kind of inner conviction that the law you just have to follow. In this case, a person does not argue that the law is actually unfair (we note that, being outside the space of the law, it is pointless to talk about its fairness or injustice), does not try to find excuses and loopholes in order not to comply with it. He observes the law because it is the law, and only through the observance of the law is it possible for lawfulness to exist in society. The personal, therefore, is related to the foundations of culture (culture is impossible without the personal), but at the same time, it does not derive from cultural contents.

sya. It is important to understand that culture does not guarantee the human (the First and Second World Wars showed this), although it itself appears in the aspiration to the human. Moreover, culture can degenerate, lose its human-creating significance, although at first glance this may not be so noticeable if civilization is preserved as the outer shell of cultural phenomena.

Thus, questioning about the being of a person is actually the task of searching for those grounds that allow a person to be. Philosophers of various schools and trends are trying to find these foundations in the biological, social or spiritual aspects of human life. We, in turn, give priority here to the spiritual principle in man, which is not reducible to biological or social. Moreover, such irreducibility often leads to conflicts and contradictions. In this context, in our opinion, the conflict between the social and the spiritual is especially important, since it is society, being in continuous dynamics, that is able to violate and rebuild the value framework of the individual, to replace human-creating values ​​with human-destroying ones. As a result, a “situation of uncertainty” (the term of M. K. Mamardashvili) may arise, in which a person can no longer be a person. As M. K. Mamardashvili himself notes, a person in such a situation turns into a zombie, and his life into an absurd existence. Next, we will try to explain this in more detail.

Human values

Before characterizing human-creating and human-destroying values, we need to reveal the very concept of value. It is very difficult to give a precise definition of value. At first glance, values ​​are purely subjective. We do not deny that values ​​are always connected in one way or another with social environment in which the individual is located, they are formed by society. But at the same time, a specific set of values ​​of a particular person is always subjective. This is pointed out, for example, by L.V. Baeva: “Values ​​are an ideal phenomenon, a feature of which, unlike material objects, is belonging to subjective perception and consciousness. When we say that some objects or relations have value for us, this does not mean that they are of the same value for other individuals. In addition, values ​​are not frozen, they interact with each other, transform, being in constant dynamics. Thus, a person, forming the value basis of his life, constantly overcomes the path from the particular to the general and vice versa. It transforms the values ​​of society, giving them its own meaning. The very same social environment in relation to the individual has a relatively random character. It can dominate him or, on the contrary, give the necessary freedom and space for living thought.

Despite this, we argue that those human-creating values ​​that allow a person to collect himself in the space of the personal are objective. The subjectivity of value here is excluded by the fact that in fact such values ​​constitute the ultimate (ontological) foundations of the human. Such are the previously mentioned phenomena that form the sphere of the spiritual existence of man. The problem of such values ​​for a philosopher, according to M.K. Mamardashvili, - “... this is not a problem of a person's belief in ideals, higher values. It ... is about something else - about the participation of a person with his effort in real life, different from ours, in the real life of some ontological abstractions of the order or the so-called higher, or perfect, objects. As such a "perfect object" one can take, for example, conscience. Obviously, in empirical reality it is impossible to meet a person with an absolutely clear conscience. However, each empirically recorded act of an act of conscience assumes that conscience already exists, and is all at once in this act. After all, conscience cannot exist to some greater or lesser degree; it either exists in its entirety, or it does not exist at all. Moreover, the situation when there is a conscience is not the result of a generalization of any previous experience of a person, conscience is not set in the form of an ideal. Even if you try to set the ideal of conscience, then no real action will necessarily follow from the knowledge of this ideal. In addition, ideals can be different, but conscience is one - it cannot be said that every person has some kind of conscience of his own. Similarly, goodness is one - one not in content, but in the fact of its presence in the world. Any empirical act of virtue is possible (whatever it may be expressed in) because good already exists. In this sense, conscience, goodness, etc. phenomena are objective, i.e. are not created by man and are not the result of his reflection or theoretical generalizations. A person can only try by his own effort to preserve in himself the state of being in conscience, goodness, etc.

We have said before that the self-creative effort of man must be supported by culture. However, spiritual culture is very vulnerable and susceptible to all changes, including negative ones. It is very easy to break it and give it a different direction. This seems to us relevant for the present time, when the process spiritual development personality is experiencing a decisive influence from mass culture, which is built on the ideology of all-possession. Any ideology is a necessary moment of social life, it is designed to unite people. However, problems arise when ideology seeks to occupy the entire space of human life. In this case, there is no place left for human-creating values ​​in a person's life, since they are shielded by ideological schemes6. These schemes present a person with ready-made values, presented as the only true guidelines. Today, the values ​​of a mass consumer society are most often used as such guidelines. Just they can

be destructive for a person, since they screen those genuine spiritual values ​​that cannot be an object of possession and consumption - one cannot have a thought or conscience like owning a thing (for more details, see). The specific mechanisms of such screening may look different (we will consider some of them below), but they all lead to the fact that a person eventually risks turning into an impersonal creature, obsessed with only one desire - to have and consume. Here we see the replacement of the model of existence "to be" by "to have", according to E. Fromm.

One of the blocking spiritual mechanisms is the elevation of the possession of biologically or socially given goods to the rank of absolute value. Satisfaction of biological needs is necessary for the life of the human body. On the one hand, it unites a person with an animal. On the other hand, a person in the process of personal development is constantly trying to overcome his animal essence. This is a certain paradox and, in our opinion, one of the problems of modern society. Popular culture presents sexuality, cult human body as values ​​expressing the ideal of modern man (although corporality is already more of a social phenomenon than a biological one). As a result, a person often ceases to be perceived as a person, he becomes simply an object of sexual consumption, a thing.

In turn, social values ​​are also undergoing a number of changes. The dynamic development of science and technology, the growth of well-being gave people the opportunity to massively engage in all spheres of public life, whether it be politics or sports, art or education. On the one hand, this trend allowed almost every person to touch the sacred, to see what was available only to the elite. On the other hand, this was the reason for the emergence of such phenomena as the "average" person and the mass. The mass production of goods, both necessary and completely unnecessary for life, led society to a new path of development - the path of consumption. The danger of such a path is that a person as a person is not perceived by society, now he is evaluated by the amount of material goods that he can afford. It is this indicator that becomes one of the key when it comes to the social status of an individual. In pursuit of a higher position in society, a person is depersonalized, reduced only to consumption imposed from outside by the social environment. Indeed, the pace of development of society is so great that a person does not even have time to think about what he needs in life - economists and marketers decide for him.

Mass culture has also reassessed the spiritual values ​​of a person, encroaching on the inner world of the individual. Now they are directly trying to make the spiritual an object of consumption, which actually leads to its rebirth into another scheme that shields the human. So, for example, the true significance of education (especially higher education) lies in

developing the ability to create and retain, as far as possible, a space of concentration, i.e. the space in which living human states are possible (events of thought, conscience, etc.). However, in modern conditions, education is gradually ceasing to fulfill this function. Having become accessible to many, education has become a kind of conveyor of knowledge, acting as a commodity. Each person can have the set of knowledge that he wants. People consume knowledge that can be bought anytime, anywhere. In this regard, E. Fromm rightly notes: “Students focused on “possession”, listening to lectures, perceive words, catch logical connections and general meaning; they try to make as detailed notes as possible so that they can then memorize the notes and pass the exam. But they do not think about the content, about their attitude to this material, it does not become part of the student's own thoughts.

Conclusion

It should be noted that a person is not something given and guaranteed, a person is a speed

more a process than a result. In this process of constant becoming, a person needs that ultimate (ontological) foundation that gives him the opportunity to be. It is pointless to look for such a foundation only in the biological or social sphere, it necessarily implies the presence in a person’s life of those spiritual values ​​that allow the human not to be destroyed. However, it is precisely these values ​​that must be supported by a true culture, in modern society are often shielded by all sorts of ideological schemes. In particular, society today is trying to universally introduce the ideology of consumption, affecting all spheres of human life. It is very difficult for a person in such a situation to distinguish real human-creating values ​​from false and often destructive values ​​of all-possession, since the latter are presented as necessary for life. That is why man today is in potential danger of being broken by mass culture and losing his humanity.

NOTES

1 To verify this, it is enough to refer, for example, to the corresponding article in the New Philosophical Encyclopedia.

2 For sociobiology, see for example: .

3 See, for example: . Although E.K. Vagimov speaks here of three dimensions of human existence - biological, mental (identifying it with the spiritual) and social - in fact, he puts an equal sign between the mental and the social. Personality, in his opinion, is the result of socialization.

4 An overview of possible conceptual approaches to the problem of psychophysiological dualism is given by K. Ludwig.

5 The division of culture into material and spiritual seems to be rather arbitrary, given that any object created by man bears the imprint of the inner world of its creator. Therefore, further we will use the term "culture", assuming that we are talking about the spiritual aspect of culture.

6 An example of the operation of such schemes is given by F.M. Dostoevsky in The Idiot. Prince Myshkin, during his first visit to the family of General Epanchin, tells about a woman named Marie, whom public opinion considered unworthy, who had sinned. This did not allow others to see her need and suffering - the ideological scheme blocked the human-creating mechanism of compassion. And only children, who are not yet so deeply involved in social relations, relatively easily managed to overcome the influence of ideology in themselves and see a person in an unfortunate person. For the rest, including even Marie herself, the opportunity to see this was closed.

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The article was presented by the scientific editorial board "Philosophy, sociology, political science" October 02, 2014

THE AXIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF THE BEING OF A HUMAN BEING: HUMAN-CREATING AND HUMAN-DESTROYING VALUES

Tomsk State University Journal, 2015, 390, pp. 54-59. DOI 10.17223/15617793/390/10

Konstantinov Dmitrii V., Kholomeev Alexei G. Siberian State University of Physical Culture and Sports (Omsk, Russian Federation). Email: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Keywords: being of a human being; values; personality; spiritual culture; society of mass consumption; ideology.

Understanding the question of the being as a question of the basis that allow to be, the authors consider the being of a human being as an objective basis or a necessary condition of human existence. Philosophers from different schools of thought try to find such a basis in biological, social or spiritual aspects of human life. If to consider a human being from the biological point of view, the similarity between humans and animals is nevertheless much larger than the difference. Besides, it is obvious that human life cannot be reduced only to the activity of a human body, although without it life is impossible. In turn, the social milieu, in which the individual exists, also does not play a crucial role in their formation as a human in every sense of the word. consequent, bases that allow a human being to be should be looked for in the spiritual. The spiritual is something self-based, it appears in a human being neither from nature nor from society. It is possible to attribute to the spiritual the spheres of conscience, thought, empathy, good and other similar phenomena playing the role of human-creating values. The spiritual being of a human being is inseparably connected with the spiritual culture of society. Artifacts (texts) of spiritual culture first of all are intended to help humans to keep themselves in the spiritual space. At that, in the empirical reality, a human cannot be always good, honest, fair, etc. It would be equivalent to transcending a human to a superhuman (divine) state. However, a human can be truly alive only through the aspiration to the superhuman. The personality is born in such an aspiration. Personality is something that forces humans to seek the order in their life on their own basis. At the same time spiritual culture is very vulnerable and susceptible to all changes, including negative. In particular, the spiritual formation of personality now endures a decisive influence of the mass culture which is based on the ideology of total possession. If any ideology occupies the entire space of human life, this life does not leave place for human-creating values, because they are shielded by ideological schemes. These schemes present a human with ready values ​​which are given as the only true guidance. Values ​​of the society of mass consumption often play the role of such guidance today. It is they that can be destructive for a human because they shield the true spiritual values ​​which cannot be the object of possession and consumption.

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The category of being is of great importance both in philosophy and in life. The content of the problem of being includes reflections on the world, ᴇᴦο existence. The term ʼʼUniverseʼʼ - they denote the whole vast world, starting from elementary particles and ending with metagalaxies. In philosophical language, the word ʼʼUniverseʼʼ can mean being or the universe.

Throughout the historical and philosophical process, in all philosophical schools, directions, the question of the structure of the universe was considered. The initial concept, on the basis of which the philosophical picture of the world is built, is the category of being. Being is the broadest and therefore the most abstract concept.

Since antiquity, there have been attempts to limit the scope of this concept. Some philosophers have naturalized the concept of being. For example, the concept of Parmenides, according to which being is an ʼʼsphere of spheresʼʼ, something motionless, self-identical, in which all nature fits. Or Heraclitus - as constantly becoming. The opposite position tried to idealize the concept of being, for example, in Plato. For existentialists, being is limited to the individual being of a person. The philosophical concept of being does not tolerate any limitation. Let us consider what meaning philosophy puts into the concept of being.

First of all, the term ʼʼbeʼʼ means to be present, to exist. Recognition of the fact of the existence of diverse things of the surrounding world, nature and society, the person himself is the first prerequisite for the formation of a picture of the universe. From this follows the second aspect of the problem of being, which has a significant impact on the formation of a person's worldview. There is being, that is, something exists as a reality, and a person must constantly reckon with this reality.

The third aspect of the problem of being is connected with the recognition of the unity of the universe. Man in his Everyday life, practical activity comes to the conclusion about their commonality with other people, the existence of nature. But at the same time, the differences that exist between people and things, between nature and society are no less obvious to him. And naturally, the question arises about the possibility of a universal (that is, common) for all phenomena of the surrounding world. The answer to this question is also naturally connected with the recognition of being. All the diversity of natural and spiritual phenomena is united by the fact that they exist, despite the difference in the forms of their existence. And precisely because of the fact of their existence, they form an integral unity of the world.

On the basis of the category of being in philosophy, the most general characteristics universe˸ everything that exists is the world to which we belong. Thus the world has existence. He is. The existence of the world is a prerequisite ᴇᴦο of unity. For there must first be peace before one can speak of ᴇᴦο unity. It acts as an aggregate reality and unity of nature and man, material being and human spirit.

The concept of being, its aspects and main forms - the concept and types. Classification and features of the category "The concept of being, its aspects and main forms" 2015, 2017-2018.

Lecture 10

The concept of "being" was introduced into philosophy by Parmenides as early as the 6th century. BC. and since then it has become one of the most important categories of philosophy, expressing the problem of the existence of reality in its most general form.

The initial prerequisite for human life is the recognition that the world exists. But, having recognized the existence of the world, we involuntarily raise the question of its past and future. And here different answers are possible. Some philosophers argued that the world has always been, is and always will be. Others, agreeing with this position, believed that the world has a beginning and an end in time and space. In other words, the idea of ​​the existence of the world as a whole was combined in philosophy with the thesis of either the transient or the eternal existence of the world.

The problem of existence includes several interrelated aspects. The first aspect is the unity of the enduring being of nature as a whole and the transient being of individual things and processes of nature that have a beginning and an end in time and space.

The second aspect shows that the world in the process of existence forms an inseparable unity, a universal integrity, i.e. the principle of existence is equally possessed by nature, society, man, thoughts, ideas.

The third aspect is related to the fact that the world as a whole and everything that exists in it is a reality that has an internal logic of its existence and actually precedes the consciousness and actions of people.

In philosophy, there are two meanings of being. In the narrow sense of the word, it is an objective world that exists independently of human consciousness. Being in this sense is identified with the concept of "matter". In the broad sense of the word, being is everything that exists: both matter, and consciousness, and the feelings and fantasies of people.

There are four main forms of being: the being of things, the being of man, the being of the spiritual, the being of the social.

Being of things. Historically, the first prerequisite for the existence of people were and remain the things and processes of nature that exist outside and independently of the consciousness and activity of man. Nature is the environment in which man has been formed for thousands of years. The formation of man took place in the process of increasingly complex labor activity, during which a whole world of things was created, called by K. Marx "second nature". In the form of its being, the "second nature" is in many respects similar to the first, from which it is born, but in its essence it has the most important distinctive features. First of all, their existence is connected with the process of objectification and deobjectification.

Objectification is a process during which the knowledge, skills, and social experience of the person creating it is transferred to the subject of nature. As a result, the object of nature is transformed in accordance with the current needs of people and the way they are satisfied.

Disobjectification is the process of transferring onto a person the social qualities inherent in the product of labor, thanks to which the object satisfies a specific need.

The objects of the "second nature" embody the work and knowledge of man. To master the subject, each person must have an idea about their purpose, the principle of operation, design features, etc. The main difference between the existence of things created by man and the existence of natural things is that their existence is a socio-historical existence, carried out in the process of subject-practical activity of people.

The existence of man. It is divided into human existence in the world of things and specific human existence. The doctrine of human being answers, first of all, the question of how exactly a person exists. The primary prerequisite for human existence is the existence of his body as an object of nature, subject to the laws of biological evolution and in need of satisfaction of necessary needs. A person must first of all have food, clothing, shelter, because without this, human existence is generally impossible.

The existence of an individual person is a dialectical unity of body and spirit. On the one hand, the functioning of the human body is closely related to the activity of the brain and nervous system, on the other hand, healthy body creates a good basis for the improvement of thinking, the development of spiritual activity and the satisfaction of spiritual needs. At the same time, it is well known how great is the role of the human spirit in maintaining the physical strength of a person.

It is important to note that the existence of a person as a thinking and feeling thing was one of the prerequisites that prompted a person to production activities and communication. Nature did not provide people with everything necessary for a normal existence, and they were forced to unite to produce the items necessary to meet constantly emerging needs.

In reality, there is a specific, individual person who can be considered as a thinking and feeling thing, as a natural body. And at the same time, a person exists as an individual, as a representative of the human race, located at a given stage of its development. At the same time, man also exists as a socio-historical being, as the subject and object of human history. Human existence is objective in relation to the consciousness of individuals and even entire generations. However, the existence of people is by no means absolutely independent of consciousness. It is the unity of natural and spiritual, individual and generic, personal and social. Human existence, according to Marx, is the real process of people's lives, their activity to satisfy their needs. The primacy among all types of activity belongs to labor activity, labor.

Being spiritual. The spiritual includes the processes of consciousness and the unconscious, norms and principles human communication, knowledge materialized in the forms of natural and artificial languages. A distinction is made between the individualized spiritual, the existence of which is inseparable from the concrete life activity of the individual, and the objectified spiritual, which can exist separately from the individual and his activity.

The individualized being of the spiritual includes consciousness, self-consciousness and the unconscious. The individualized spiritual is not divorced from the evolution of being as a whole, it does not exist separately from the life of the individual. The individualized spiritual in its essence is a special kind of spiritual, also conditioned by the existence of society and the development of history.

The specificity of the objectified spiritual lies in the fact that its elements (ideas, ideals, norms, values, languages, etc.) are able to be preserved, improved and move freely in social space and time.

Being social. The existence of the social is divided into the existence of an individual in society and the process of history and the existence of society as a social phenomenon.

Each individual person does not live in isolation, but is at the same time a member of a particular social entity, enters into diverse connections and relationships with other individuals. In the course of his life, he constantly affects the people around him and himself, in turn, is influenced by other individuals, social groups and institutions. Man, on the one hand, is the object of the historical process, constantly being involved in diverse historical events On the other hand, he increasingly becomes the subject of historical action, consciously intervening in historical events in order to influence the course of history in accordance with his needs and interests.

The existence of society includes the socio-economic and political processes taking place in society, social, economic, political relations of individuals, groups, classes. The existence of society finds its expression in interstate and civil wars, socio-economic and political reforms, in transitions from one stage of social organization to another.