The influence of ancient religions on modern culture. world religions

5. The influence of religion on the culture of people

Religion "bodily" and spiritually enters the world of culture. Moreover, it constitutes one of its constructive foundations, fixed by historians almost from the appearance of “reasonable man”. On this basis, many theologians, following the outstanding ethnographer J. Fraser, assert: "All culture comes from the temple, from the cult."

The power of religion in the early stages of the development of culture went beyond the boundaries of the measurement of the latter. Until the late Middle Ages, the church covered almost all cultural spheres. It was both a school and a university, a club and a library, a lecture hall and a philharmonic society. These institutions of culture have been brought to life by the practical needs of society, but their origins are in the bosom of the Church and in many respects have been nurtured by it.

Spiritually ruling over the flock, the Church at the same time exercised guardianship and censorship over culture, forcing it to serve the cult. In particular, this spiritual dictatorship was felt in the medieval states of the Catholic world, where the Church dominated politically and legally. And almost everywhere it dominated morality and art, education and upbringing. Church guardianship and censorship, like any dictate, did not stimulate cultural progress at all: freedom is the air of culture, without which it suffocates. Noting the positive aspects of the religious impact on the realities of culture, we should not forget about this.

Perhaps most of all, religion influenced the formation and development of national identity, the culture of the ethnic group.

The church rite often continues in the establishments of folk life and the calendar. At times it is difficult to separate the secular principle in national traditions, customs and rituals from the religious one. What, for example, are Semik and Maslenitsa for the Russian people, Navruz for the Azerbaijanis and Tajiks? Secular-folk and ecclesiastical-canonical are inextricably intertwined in these holidays. God save (thank you) - is this a religious or secular commemoration formula - is it a purely church ritual? What about caroling?

The awakening of national consciousness is usually associated with a revival of interest in the national religion. This is exactly what is happening in Russia.

In Europe, schools for monks at monasteries became cultural islands. In the Middle Ages, the leading place was occupied by architecture. This was caused primarily by the urgent need for the construction of temples.

A further cultural impetus was the growth of cities, centers of trade and crafts. A new phenomenon was urban culture, which gave rise to the Romanesque style. The Romanesque style arose as a strengthening of the authority of the Roman Empire, which was necessary for the royal power and the church. Best of all, the Romanesque style was personified by those on the hills. major cathedrals, as if towering above all earthly things.

The Gothic style denies the heavy, fortress-like Romanesque cathedrals. The attributes of the Gothic style were lancet arches and slender towers rising to the sky. The vertical composition of the building, the impetuous upward rush of lancet arches and other architectural structures expressed the desire for God and the dream of a higher life. Geometry and arithmetic were understood abstractly, through the prism of the knowledge of God, who created the world and arranged everything by "measure, number and weight." Every detail in the cathedral had a special meaning. The side walls symbolized the Old and New Testament. Pillars and columns personified the apostles and prophets carrying the vault, portals - the threshold of paradise. The dazzlingly shining interior of the Gothic cathedral personified heavenly paradise.

Early Christianity inherited from antiquity admiration for the products of creativity and contempt for the people who created them. But gradually, under the influence of Christian ideas about the beneficial, uplifting significance of labor, this attitude changed. In the monasteries of that time, it was attributed to combine activities leading to communion with God, to penetration into his essence, such as divine reading, prayers, manual labor. It was in the monasteries that many crafts and arts developed. Art was considered a charitable and noble occupation, not only ordinary monks, but also the highest church elite were engaged in it. Medieval arts: painting, architecture, jewelry - were laid within the walls of monasteries, under the shadow of a Christian church.

In the 12th century, interest in art increased significantly. This is due to the general technical, economic and scientific progress of society. The practical activity of a person, his intellect, the ability to invent something new begins to be valued much higher than before. The accumulated knowledge begins to be systematized into a hierarchy, at the top of which God continues to remain. Art, which combines high practical skills and the reflection of images of sacred tradition, receives a special status in medieval culture.

The attitude to art in the Middle Ages has undergone great changes. So, during the early Middle Ages (V-VIII centuries) dominated by ancient representations about art. Art is classified into theoretical, practical and creative. Since the 8th century, Christian ideas have been actively intertwined and interacted with non-religious ones. The main goal of art is the pursuit of divine beauty, which is embodied in the harmony and unity of nature.

Christianity, spreading to all spheres of life of a medieval person, naturally determined the direction and content of artistic creativity, limited art by its dogmas. Artistic creativity could not spread beyond their borders. It was significantly limited by the iconographic tradition. The main goal of creativity was the preservation and exaltation of Christian teaching. All medieval culture was subject to the only reality - God. God has true subjectivity; a person striving for the ideal, depicted in works of art, must submit his will to God. Everything is in God: destiny is determined by God, the world is explained by God. Christianity determined preferred themes and art forms. In literature, the favorite genre is the lives of the saints; in sculpture - images of Christ, the Mother of God, saints; in painting - an icon; in architecture - the cathedral. The themes of heaven, purgatory and hell are also common. The artist had to capture the beauty of the divine world order in his works, coordinating his vision with the ideas of the Christian clergy. Human creativity is relatively, limited, and therefore must be subordinated to the will of God. There can be no creativity outside of God. The main theme in art is Christ and his teachings.

Artistic works should not only bring sensual pleasures from the contemplation of beautiful and harmonious beauty, they should educate a person in the spirit of striving for God. Piety is the most important spiritual quality awakened by art.

Art schools appeared in Russia in the 15th century, architecture and icon painting flourished. The famous representative of the golden age of the Novgorod monumental school was the Greek master Theophanes the Greek. He did not use iconographic "copybooks", his works were deeply original and uniquely individual. He painted over 40 churches. Monumental and decorative works that have become on a par with others the greatest creations world art, created in the 15th century by Andrei Rublev. In memory of Sergius of Radonezh, he painted his most perfect work - the icon "Trinity". So, under Ivan III, the Assumption Cathedral, the Annunciation Cathedral, the Faceted Chamber were erected, the walls of the Kremlin were built. The original national spirit was embodied in St. Basil's Cathedral.

Conclusion

And even in our time, if you carefully analyze the life of the peasants, in their life you can find some traces of the Middle Ages.

The famous Gothic cathedrals still amaze the imagination of a person today, among them the cathedral is especially famous Notre Dame of Paris, cathedrals in Reims, Chartres, Amiens, Saint-Denis. N.V. Gogol (1809–1852) wrote: “Gothic architecture is a phenomenon such as has never been produced by human taste and imagination. … Entering the sacred darkness of this temple, it is quite natural to feel the involuntary horror of the presence of the shrine, which the bold mind of a person does not even dare to touch.”

Thus, the Middle Ages based Christian tradition created a mass man who was interested in solving the problems of equality, freedom, was concerned about the system of legal and other guarantees of individual existence.

The artist was an intermediary between people and God. It was in this way that the medieval model of the world developed through the idea of ​​exaltation, through an appeal to the human creator.

This is an integral principle of the European model of the world, opposite to the eastern one - the principle of stability, harmony, naturalness.

Old Russian traditionalism was strengthened by Orthodox traditionalism. The community, society meant more than the fate of an individual.

The process of formation of ancient Russian culture was not just a process of simple forward movement. It included ups and downs, periods of prolonged stagnation, decline and cultural breakthroughs. But in general, this era is a cultural layer that determined the subsequent development of the entire Russian culture.

The Church leaves milestones in the material culture of the people with monastic production, temple construction. The production of religious decorations and vestments, the printing of books, the heritage of icon painting, frescoes.

From the very beginning of its existence, the Church had to determine its position in relation to society. At first she represented a minority, often persecuted and persecuted. Small but rapidly growing Christian communities strove to develop a distinctive way of life based on love for God and one's neighbor. There is no doubt that Christianity has had a huge impact on society. Thanks to the Church, the first hospitals and universities appeared in medieval Europe. The church built great cathedrals, patronized artists and musicians. Obviously, religion and culture are not identical. Religion takes shape earlier and reshapes public consciousness accordingly. New cult-cultural archetypes begin to form, which form the foundation of a new culture. Christian culture acquired its adequate appearance (more precisely, the Face) only in mature Byzantium and Ancient Russia and in medieval Western Europe(Latin-Catholic branch). It was then that all the major spheres human life and spiritual and material creativity, all the main social institutions were completely covered by the Christian spirit; religion, church cult, Christian worldview have become the main cultural-creating factors

Literature

1. Victor Bychkov 2000 years of Christian culture sub specie aesthetica. In 2 vols. Volume 1 Early Christianity. Byzantium. M. - St. Petersburg: Universitetskaya kniga, 1999. 575 p.

2. Victor Bychkov 2000 years of Christian culture sub specie aesthetica. In 2 vols. Volume 2 Slavic world. Ancient Russia. Russia. M. - St. Petersburg: Universitetskaya kniga, 1999. 527 p.

3. Religion in history and culture: Textbook for universities / M.G. Pismanik, A.V. Vertinsky, S.P. Demyanenko and others; ed. prof. M.G. Pismanika. – M.: Culture and sport, UNITI, 1998. -430 p.

4. John Young Christianity / trans. from English. K. Savelyeva. - M.: FAIR-PRESS, 2000. -384 p.

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Despite the fact that the words "culture" and "cult" have a similar sound and even are often mistakenly defined as the same root, the similarity between the meanings of these words is superficial. The only thing that unites culture and cult is belonging to the moral and spiritual sphere of human life and the influence of religion on culture and vice versa. AT modern world in most states, religion and culture are corroded, and coexist as separate independent layers of the spiritual life of society. However, from time to time, due to the relationship between culture and religion, either cultural objects with pronounced religious motives, or religious and philosophical cults based on modern culture are created.

Modern philologists, historians and religious scholars interpret it as worship before something or someone; in the field of religion, cult is the worship of a deity based on faith, as well as all the rituals, rites and traditions associated with worship. Culture in the broadest interpretation is the totality of all human actions that are not aimed at satisfying biological instincts. In a narrower sense, the concept of "culture" refers to the practical implementation of any spiritual and moral values ​​and human aspirations, and the most obvious result of such implementation is creativity. However, in addition to creativity, culture also includes the rules of communication and behavior in society, the rules and well-known moral and ethical standards that all members of society adhere to.

Relationship between culture and religion in the ancient world

In ancient times, culture and cult were practically inseparable, since the whole life of people was regulated by beliefs and beliefs. religious traditions. primitive religions, based on, were firmly merged with the creativity and morality of man, and were a creative reflection of the surrounding nature and the world. A vivid example of such a strong connection between culture and religion in the life of ancient peoples can be called many monuments left over from ancient civilizations: the ruins of majestic religious buildings - masterpieces of architecture, ancient jewelry used in various ceremonies and served as protective amulets, statues carved from solid stone, installed on the burial sites, and even rock art, which is a graphic description of the life and beliefs of ancient people.

Religion also had a significant impact on ancient culture, because even now the most complete sources of information about the events of those times are myths and legends. Mythology is not only stories about gods, but also stories about real kings, generals and heroes who lived in those times. BUT holy book of all Christians, the Bible in the Old Testament contains a description of the history, life and traditions of the Jewish people, as well as those peoples with whom the Jews had military or political conflicts. AT scriptures other religions also describe not only the covenants and commandments for believers, but also the biographies of prophets and rulers, philosophical research and valuable knowledge of that time and many historical events.

The vast majority of historical and cultural monuments ancient era, which have survived to this day, are related to both culture and religious cults. One of the seven wonders of the world, the Egyptian pyramids are indeed a marvel of architecture and architecture, but for the ancient Egyptians they were primarily of religious significance. Yes, and among the peoples of Eastern Europe cultural monuments of antiquity have a cult significance - for example, one of the most famous sights of Kyiv, Saint Sophia Cathedral, was erected by order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise in the first half of the 11th century in order to perpetuate the victory over the Pechenegs and glorify Christianity in Kievan Rus.

The relationship of culture and religion in the Middle Ages

In the Middle Ages, a clear distinction between culture and religion began, and these two layers of a person's spiritual life began to coexist separately, although they were often closely intertwined with each other. Talented writers, musicians and artists lived during this period of human history, and their works were not connected with religious themes, and the church prohibited works of such "secular" nature only in those cases when they were recognized as blasphemous and immoral. In most states during the Middle Ages, there was quite strict censorship, so many works of art were banned and destroyed.

Another side of the relationship between culture and religion in the Middle Ages was the huge role of religion in the life of society, so the spiritual and social life of people was closely connected with religion. Even if scientists, politicians and artists in the depths of their souls rejected religious dogmas, they did not share their opinions with society, but continued to "play for the public." Therefore, the culture of behavior, communication and social and family life in the Middle Ages was based primarily on the laws of religion, not law.

Culture and religion in our time

in most countries it no longer plays such a significant role as literally 2-3 centuries ago. The Constitution of many states explicitly states that every person has freedom of religion, and the church is separated from the state. Therefore, it is natural that religion and culture coexist side by side, but the connection between them is not as strong as in the Middle Ages. Nevertheless, these two spheres of spiritual life are quite compatible with each other - many believers are engaged in creativity, work in the field of culture, etc. Also, modern writers and artists often turn to biblical motifs, and some singers sing songs on religious themes.

However, not only religion affects culture, but also vice versa: the requirements of the church for believers have been significantly softened compared to the Middle Ages, for example, now a priest will not declare a sinner and atheist a person who rarely visits church service And he will not drive out of the temple a woman who has entered there in trousers. Also, under the influence of modern culture, new religious and philosophical cults are being created, which include features different religions and cultures.

For many years, Russian culture - oral folk art, art, architecture, painting, artistic crafts - developed under the influence of pagan religion, pagan worldview. With the adoption of Christianity by Russia, the situation changed dramatically. First of all, the new religion claimed to change the worldview of people, their perception of all life, and therefore ideas about beauty, artistic creativity, aesthetic influence.

However, Christianity, having had a strong impact on Russian culture, especially in the field of literature, architecture, art, the development of literacy, schooling, libraries - in those areas that were closely connected with the life of the church, with religion, could not overcome the origins of the people. Russian culture. For many years, dual faith remained in Russia: the official religion, which prevailed in the cities, and paganism, which went into the shadows, but still existed in remote parts of Russia, especially in the northeast, retained its positions in the countryside, the development of Russian culture reflected this duality in the spiritual life of society, in the life of the people. Pagan spiritual traditions, folk at their core, had a profound impact on the entire development of Russian culture in the early Middle Ages.

Under the influence folk traditions, foundations, habits, under the influence of the people's worldview, church culture itself, religious ideology, was filled with new content. The stern ascetic Christianity of Byzantium on Russian pagan soil, with its cult of nature, worship of the sun, light, wind, with its cheerfulness, love of life, deep humanity, has significantly changed, which is reflected in all those areas of culture where the Byzantine, Christian at its core, cultural influence was especially large. It is no coincidence that in many church monuments of culture (for example, the writings of church authors) we see completely secular, worldly reasoning and a reflection of purely worldly passions.

Appearing in Russia at the end of the 10th century, Christianity begins its rapid rise. Cathedrals and churches are being built. Despite the fact that Christianity came to us from Byzantium, its canons do not remain unchanged, there is a kind of integration between paganism and Christianity. This makes the new religion original, Russian Christianity acquires its own laws and rituals, unlike the Byzantine ones. The church gradually becomes the main institution of the feudal culture of ancient Russia. So the first step to creating Christian religion in Russia was made under Prince Vladimir. And the second is no less important under Prince Yaroslav in 1051. Until that time, Russian metropolitans were exclusively governors from Byzantium, and the Russian Church was subordinate to it. Under Yaroslav the Wise, for the first time, the Russian priest Hilarion was installed as a Russian metropolitan. From that moment on, the church in Russia became completely independent. But, despite such powerful progress, the church failed to completely change the ancient traditions of the Russians. As Ryabova Z.A. says in her article: “The world of culture of Kievan Rus was a world of traditions, rituals, canons, first pagan, then Orthodox” (1.58). Therefore, despite the prohibitions of the church, various pagan festivities took place in Russia (this phenomenon of the neighborhood of two cultures was called “cultural dualism”), such as the expulsion of winter and the old year. Laughter was magic symbol the increase of the human race and harvest, hence the "comic culture" of ancient Russia. Such a mixture of two cultures, two religions: pagan ancient Slavic and Byzantine Orthodox, remains Christianity in Russia to this day.

Question 2)

Old Russian culture developed in certain historical-ethnic, natural-geographical and social conditions. Its origins go back to the 5th-7th centuries, when, as a result of the Great Migration of Peoples, the formation of the southern, eastern and western Slavs took place. Further processes of assimilation of the Eastern Slavs with the Finno-Ugric peoples and the Balts led in the 9th-10th centuries. to the formation of the ancient Russian people. The appearance of the concept of "Rus", "Russian land" also belongs to the same time. In a broad sense, "Rus" meant all the lands of the Eastern Slavs, subordinate to Kyiv. In a narrow sense - the territory bounded by the rivers Ros, Rosava and Dnieper.

The geographical factor (“place of development” of Russian culture), which determined the peculiarities of the culture of the Eastern Slavs, was pointed out by V. O. Klyuchevsky, G. V. Vernadsky, G. P. Fedotov, P. N. Milyukov and others. In the “Course of Russian History” V. O. Klyuchevsky wrote that the forest served as the most reliable refuge from external enemies, the steppe brought up a sense of breadth and distance, and numerous rivers taught the locals to be sociability, developed the spirit of teamwork and enterprise, and facilitated communication with other peoples.

In the development of ancient Russian culture, - believed the philosopher N. A. Berdyaev, - constantly “two elements collided: pre-Christian natural breadth, a special temperament formed in the vast forest and steppe expanses of the Russian land, pagan beliefs that had not been eradicated by Christianity, and Orthodox, from Byzantium inherited asceticism. But at the same time, one must take into account the fact that the statehood and culture of the Eastern Slavs was formed under the influence of not only Christian Byzantium, but also the Khazar Khaganate and pagan Varangians. The formation of the culture of Kievan Rus was also influenced by the so-called "Bulgarian factor". At the turn of the IX-X centuries. in Bulgaria, almost all the main works of Byzantine theologians and other literary monuments were translated into Old Slavonic, which were gradually accepted by Russia.

“The propensity for universal responsiveness”, as defined by the writer F. M. Dostoevsky, meant the constant readiness of the Eastern Slavs to learn from other peoples, to assimilate and transform other ethno-cultural forms and create their own national culture on these conditions.

Of fundamental importance for the development of culture was the choice of faith. The adoption of Christianity in its Greco-Byzantine version (Orthodoxy) in 988 is considered by many researchers to be the beginning of Old Russian culture proper. The question of the end of the culture of ancient Russia is debatable. Some historians call the first third of the 12th century the end date for the existence of ancient Russian culture, when the relatively unified Kievan Rus broke up into separate principalities, and the process of formation of the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples began. Others associate the end of Old Russian culture with intensive Europeanization. Russian culture at the turn of the XVI-XVII centuries.

The baptism of Russia determined its cultural and historical destiny. With the adoption of Christianity, the worldview of people, their perception of life, ideas about beauty and creativity gradually changed. The role and functions of cities have changed, and they have turned into centers of cultural community. A unified writing system and "book learning" began to develop. Written culture in Russia spread with the help of monasteries, where the first schools, libraries and scriptoriums appeared. Multi-genre Old Russian literature began to develop. At the same time, the variety of genres acquired from Byzantium took on its own original forms: chronicles, lives, teachings, parables, words (speech), prayers, walking. Byzantine craftsmen brought to Russia the technique of stone construction of cross-domed churches; the art of mosaics, icon painting, frescoes, book miniatures; jewelry, which were creatively rethought by local architects and icon painters. characteristic features ancient Russian culture became imagery and scale in the annals; monumentality and elegance in architecture; softness and love of life - in icon painting; passion and humanism - in literature.

Old Russian culture was distinguished by a unique combination of church-princely Christian culture and folk pagan traditions. The culture of ancient Russia developed in the mode of "dual faith": the official culture prevailed in the cities, paganism retained its position in the countryside. Pagan symbols found their expression in folklore, Everyday life, in the rituals of agricultural holidays, calendar ritual poetry, squad songs, etc. One of the most famous secular works of ancient Russia, The Tale of Igor's Campaign, is permeated with pagan motifs.

Question 3)

For the first time, Moscow, as a settlement, a city, is mentioned in the Ipatiev Chronicle in 1147, when the Suzdal prince Yuri Dolgoruky met his ally here - Novgorod-Seversky prince Svyatoslav Olgovich. From 1260 Moscow was the center of the principality, from 1460 to 1711 - the center of Muscovite Russia. Capital of the RSFSR since 1918, USSR since 1922 Russian Federation- since 1991.

Moscow did not become the capital immediately after its foundation and the first chronicle mention. Initially, it was a small town on the outskirts of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. At a time when Moscow was just beginning to develop as a city, Russia was attacked by the Mongol-Tatar conquerors. They collected tribute from all over the state and robbed and burned many Russian cities. They called their state, located on the conquered lands, the Golden Horde. Moscow was far from the Golden Horde, which contributed to the fact that people reached out to the city, looking for shelter and protection from foreign troops. These were merchants, artisans, builders, warriors and ordinary citizens. Gradually, Moscow becomes the center of the struggle against the Golden Horde. After the removal of the Tatar-Mongol yoke, Moscow became a separate principality, and then the capital of the Russian state.

Page 1

Religion "bodily" and spiritually enters the world of culture. Moreover, it constitutes one of its constructive foundations, fixed by historians almost from the appearance of “reasonable man”. On this basis, many theologians, following the outstanding ethnographer J. Fraser, assert: "All culture comes from the temple, from the cult."

The power of religion in the early stages of the development of culture went beyond the boundaries of the measurement of the latter. Until the late Middle Ages, the church covered almost all cultural spheres. It was both a school and a university, a club and a library, a lecture hall and a philharmonic society. These institutions of culture have been brought to life by the practical needs of society, but their origins are in the bosom of the Church and in many respects have been nurtured by it.

Spiritually ruling over the flock, the Church at the same time exercised guardianship and censorship over culture, forcing it to serve the cult. In particular, this spiritual dictatorship was felt in the medieval states of the Catholic world, where the Church dominated politically and legally. And almost everywhere it dominated morality and art, education and upbringing. Church guardianship and censorship, like any dictate, did not stimulate cultural progress at all: freedom is the air of culture, without which it suffocates. Noting the positive aspects of the religious impact on the realities of culture, we should not forget about this.

Perhaps most of all, religion influenced the formation and development of national identity, the culture of the ethnic group.

The church rite often continues in the establishments of folk life and the calendar. At times it is difficult to separate the secular principle in national traditions, customs and rituals from the religious one. What, for example, are Semik and Maslenitsa for the Russian people, Navruz for the Azerbaijanis and Tajiks? Secular-folk and ecclesiastical-canonical are inextricably intertwined in these holidays. God save (thank you) - is this a religious or secular commemoration formula - is it a purely church ritual? What about caroling?

The awakening of national consciousness is usually associated with a revival of interest in the national religion. This is exactly what is happening in Russia.

In Europe, schools for monks at monasteries became cultural islands. In the Middle Ages, the leading place was occupied by architecture. This was caused primarily by the urgent need for the construction of temples.

A further cultural impetus was the growth of cities, centers of trade and crafts. A new phenomenon was urban culture, which gave rise to the Romanesque style. The Romanesque style arose as a strengthening of the authority of the Roman Empire, which was necessary for the royal power and the church. Best of all, the Romanesque style was personified by the large cathedrals located on the hills, as if towering above everything earthly.

The Gothic style denies the heavy, fortress-like Romanesque cathedrals. The attributes of the Gothic style were lancet arches and slender towers rising to the sky. The vertical composition of the building, the impetuous upward rush of lancet arches and other architectural structures expressed the desire for God and the dream of a higher life. Geometry and arithmetic were understood abstractly, through the prism of the knowledge of God, who created the world and arranged everything by "measure, number and weight." Every detail in the cathedral had a special meaning. The side walls symbolized the Old and New Testaments. Pillars and columns personified the apostles and prophets carrying the vault, portals - the threshold of paradise. The dazzlingly shining interior of the Gothic cathedral personified heavenly paradise.

Early Christianity inherited from antiquity admiration for the products of creativity and contempt for the people who created them. But gradually, under the influence of Christian ideas about the beneficial, uplifting significance of labor, this attitude changed. In the monasteries of that time, it was attributed to combine activities leading to communion with God, to penetration into his essence, such as divine reading, prayers, manual labor. It was in the monasteries that many crafts and arts developed. Art was considered a charitable and noble occupation, not only ordinary monks, but also the highest church elite were engaged in it. Medieval arts: painting, architecture, jewelry - were laid within the walls of monasteries, under the shadow of a Christian church.

In the 12th century, interest in art increased significantly. This is due to the general technical, economic and scientific progress of society. The practical activity of a person, his intellect, the ability to invent something new begins to be valued much higher than before. The accumulated knowledge begins to be systematized into a hierarchy, at the top of which God continues to remain. Art, which combines high practical skills and the reflection of images of sacred tradition, receives a special status in medieval culture.

The attitude to art in the Middle Ages has undergone great changes. So, during the early Middle Ages (V-VIII centuries), ancient ideas about art dominate. Art is classified into theoretical, practical and creative. Since the 8th century, Christian ideas have been actively intertwined and interacted with non-religious ones. The main goal of art is the pursuit of divine beauty, which is embodied in the harmony and unity of nature.

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In the history of culture, the emergence of three world religions was of particular importance: Buddhism, Christianity and Islam. These religions made significant changes to culture, entering into a complex interaction with its various elements and aspects. Primitive culture was characterized by the indivisibility of public consciousness, therefore, in ancient times, religion, which was a complex interweaving of totemism, animism, fetishism and magic, was merged with primitive art and morality, and together they were an artistic reflection of the nature surrounding a person, his labor activity. Religion had a huge impact on ancient culture, one of the elements of which was ancient Greek mythology. From the myths we learn about historical events of that time, about the life of society and its problems. Ancient Greek mythology had a great influence on the culture of many modern European peoples. Leonardo da Vinci, Titian, Rubens, Shakespeare addressed her. Mozart and many other composers, writers and artists. Biblical myths, including the myth of the god-man Jesus Christ, were the most attractive in art. Painting has lived for centuries with interpretations of the Nativity and the baptism of Christ, the Last Supper, the crucifixion, resurrection and ascension of Jesus. On the canvases of Leonardo da Vinci, Kramskoy, Ivanov, Christ is presented as the highest ideal of Man, as the ideal of purity, love and forgiveness. The same moral dominant prevails in Christian icon painting, frescoes, and temple art. The Bible is a monument of Hebrew literature (Old Testament) and early Christian literature (New Testament). The Bible reflected the life of the peoples of the Ancient Mediterranean - wars, agreements, the activities of kings and generals, the life and customs of that time. Therefore, the Bible is one of the largest monuments of world culture and literature. The Quran includes Islamic teachings about the fate of the world and man, contains a collection of ritual and legal regulations, edifying stories and parables. The Koran presents ancient Arabic customs, Arabic poetry, folklore. In the literature of the 19th century, images of people of the Christian spirit of holiness appear: F. M. Dostoevsky has Prince Myshkin in the novel “The Idiot”; L. N. Tolstoy - Platon Karataev in "War and Peace". Later, Christ appeared in M. Bulgakov's novel The Master and Margarita under the name Yeshua.

Europe. The most important feature of medieval culture is the special role of Christian doctrine and the Christian church. In the context of the general decline of culture immediately after the destruction of the Roman Empire, only the church remained for many centuries the only social institution common to all countries, tribes and states of Europe. The church was the dominant political institution, but even more significant was the influence that the church had directly on the consciousness of the population. Christianity offered people a coherent system of knowledge about the world, about its structure, about the forces and laws acting in it.

The medieval European was certainly deeply a religious person. According to the apt expression of S. Averintsev, the Bible was read and listened to in the Middle Ages in much the same way as we now read fresh newspapers.

Byzantium. Byzantine culture became the first Christian culture in the full sense. It was in Byzantium that the formation of Christianity was completed, and for the first time it acquired a complete, classical form in its orthodox, or Orthodox, version. The Byzantine temple differs significantly from the ancient classical temple. The latter acted as the abode of God, while all the rites and festivities took place outside, around the temple or in the adjacent square. Therefore, the main thing in the temple was not the interior, but the exterior, its appearance. Against, Christian church built as a place where believers gather. Therefore, the organization of the internal space comes to the fore in it, although appearance does not lose its significance. It is in this vein that the church of St. Sophia in Constantinople (532-537), which became the most famous monument of Byzantine architecture. Its authors are the architects Anfimy and Isidore. Outwardly, it does not look too grandiose, although it is distinguished by rigor, harmony and magnificence of forms. However, inside it seems truly immense. The effect of boundless space is created, first of all, by the huge dome with a diameter of 31 m located at a height of 55 m, as well as the sub-domes adjacent to it, expanding the already huge space. Icon painting reaches a high level in Byzantium. which is a kind of easel cult painting. The period of the first flowering of Byzantine icon painting falls on the 10th-11th centuries, when the image of the human figure occupies a dominant position in the icon, and other elements - the landscape and the architectural background - are transmitted very conditionally. Among the outstanding examples of icon painting of this period is the icon of St. Gregory the Wonderworker (XII century), which is distinguished by deep spirituality, fine drawing and rich color. Of particular note is the icon of Our Lady of Vladimir (XII century), which became the main icon of the Russian Orthodox Church in Russia and remains so to this day. The Virgin and Child depicted on it is endowed with a penetrating expression and, for all its holiness and spirituality, is filled with deep humanity and emotionality.

Moscow Russia. Russia officially adopted Christianity in 988, in the act of the famous baptism on the Dnieper of the inhabitants of Kyiv. The change of faith in Russia took place without foreign intervention. It was her internal affairs. She herself made her choice. Most of its neighbors adopted Christianity from the hands of missionaries and crusaders. The choice of the eastern branch of Christianity - Orthodoxy - was determined by a number of reasons, internal and external. Paganism had to give way new religion, since it reflected the democratic life of the ancient Slavic society, disappearing under the onslaught of nationwide feudalism. The decisive factor in turning to the religious and ideological experience of Byzantium was the traditional political, economic, and cultural ties between Kyiv and Constantinople. For Prince Vladimir, it was important that baptism and the borrowing of Byzantine culture associated with this should not deprive Russia of its independence. Although Orthodox Church headed by the Byzantine patriarch and emperor, Russia was a completely sovereign state. Vladimir's reforms were aimed at this, aimed at changing the cultural foundations of Kievan Rus. And another moment attracted him. Christianity, following the Orthodox model, did not bind theology with linguistic canons. In Catholicism, worship was held in Latin. Kyiv defended the national worship, emphasizing the exaltation Slavic language to the level of the divine. The Byzantine Church allowed religious worship in the national language. Christianity, borrowed from the Greeks, ultimately turned out to be neither Byzantine nor Western, but Russian. This Russification of the Christian faith and the Church began early and proceeded in two directions. The first is the struggle for their national church at the top. The Greek metropolitans met in Russia with a tendency towards originality. The first Russian saints were exalted for political reasons, not related to faith, contrary to the opinion of the Greek metropolitan. The second stream came from the people. The new faith could not supplant what was part of the people themselves. Near Christian faith, not strong enough among the people, the cults of the old gods were alive. It was not dual faith that developed, but a new faith as a result of the Russification of Christianity. Christianity was assimilated by the Russians in a peculiar way, like everything that came from outside.

23.Culture of the Italian and Northern Renaissance. Reformation.

Renaissance culture is divided into three periods:

1. Early Renaissance (14th-15th century)

2. High Renaissance (15-16 centuries)

3. Northern Renaissance

The term "Renaissance" indicates the connection of a new culture with antiquity, the Society of Italy to be interested in culture Ancient Greece and Rome, the manuscripts of philosophers-writers (including Cicero, Livy, etc.)

During the Early Renaissance:

***Secular motives are getting stronger, various spheres of life, society-philosophy, literature, art, architecture, education, science are becoming more and more independent of the church.

**** The center of attention was the person, and the worldview of this culture was humanistic.

**** The era of the Early Renaissance had a pronounced secular character, opposed the dominance of the church, opposed feudal privileges, defended the place of man in life.

**** The humanists of the Renaissance believed that in a person the origin and his social origin are not important, but personal qualities: mind, knowledge, creative energy,

Ability, self-esteem. A strong, talented and comprehensively developed personality was recognized as an ideal person.

Early Italian Renaissance - Dante, Francesco, Giovanni Boccacho - famous poets of the Renaissance, the famous work "DECAmeron" Bocacacho Great geographical discoveries played a huge role in this breakthrough In 1456, Portuguese ships reached Cape Verde, In 1492 a great event happened - H. Columbus, Italian , who moved to Spain, crossed the Atlantic Ocean in search of a way to India and landed near the Bahamas, discovering a new continent - America.

In 1498, the Spanish traveler Vasco da Gama, rounding Africa, successfully brought his ships to the shores of India. From the 16th century Europeans are penetrating into China and Japan, of which they previously had only the most vague idea. From 1510 the conquest of America begins

In the 17th century Australia was discovered. The idea of ​​the shape of the earth has changed: the round-the-world trip of the Portuguese F. Magellan (1519-1522) confirmed the conjecture that the earth is round. Most of all, a sharp artistic view of things, professional independence, and special skills are valued. Hence the motives of tragedy found in the works of W. Shakespeare, M. Cervantes, Michelangelo and others.

The connection between art and science is one of the most characteristic features of the culture of the Renaissance.

Artists began to see the world differently:

planar, as if incorporeal images of medieval art gave way to three-dimensional, relief, convex space.

Raphael Santi (1483-1520), Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564) sang with their creativity the perfect personality, in which physical and spiritual beauty merge together in accordance with the requirements of ancient aesthetics.

An indispensable condition for this Italian humʜᴎϲty Lorenzo Valla(1407-1457) and L. Alberti (1404-1472) considered the accumulated knowledge that helps a person to make a choice between good and evil

Suffice it to recall the heroic images created by Michelangelo, and their creator himself - a lyricist, an artist, a sculptor. People like Michelangelo or Leonardo da Vinci were real examples of the limitless possibilities of man.

Reformation.

Germany became the birthplace of the Reformation. Its beginning is considered the events of 1517, when the doctor of theology Martin Luther (1483-1546) spoke with his 95 theses against the sale of indulgences. From that moment began his long duel with the Catholic Church.

The Reformation quickly spread to Switzerland, the Netherlands, France, England, and Italy. In Germany, the Reformation was accompanied by the Peasants' War, which was on such a scale that no other social movement of the Middle Ages can compare with it.

The Reformation found its new theorists in Switzerland, where its second largest center after Germany arose. There, John Calvin (1509-1564), who was nicknamed the "Pope of Geneva", finally formalized the reformation thought.

Ultimately, the Reformation gave rise to a new direction in Christianity, which became the spiritual basis of Western civilization - Protestantism. Part of the population of Europe departed from Catholicism: England, Scotland, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Holland, Finland, Switzerland, part of Germany, the Czech Republic, etc. And significant changes took place in Catholicism itself. Protestantism freed people from the pressure of religion in practical life . Religion has become a personal matter. Deprived of the mediation of the church, a person now had to be responsible for his actions, that is, a much greater responsibility was assigned to him. The Reformation exalted the importance of worldly life and activity, preaching the possibility of communicating with God through a society arranged accordingly.