Describe the main forms of primitive religion. Primitive forms of religion
1. general characteristics primitive forms of religion.
2. Early historical forms of religion and tribal cults: fetishism, totemism, taboo, magic, animism.
3. Shamanism.
General characteristics of primitive forms of religion
Speaking about the early forms of religion, we rely on indirect evidence from archaeological excavations and observations of ethnographers on modern primitive societies. Thus, the Austrian ethnologist W. Schmidt and his followers put forward the concept of pra-monotheism, according to which all modern religions take their origins from the so-called "primitive monotheism". But we can only create reconstructions of these religious forms without being able to directly observe them.
The data of modern archeology indicate that about 40 thousand years ago, the simplest forms of beliefs were born simultaneously with the completion of the transformation primitive people(Neanderthals) in modern humans (homo sapiens). True, some scientists associate the appearance primitive beliefs with a later time - with the era of the Cro-Magnon man - a fossil representative of the "ready" type. But we prefer the first point of view.
One of the most important problems of that time was the definition of the essential and symbolic meaning death of a person. This is evidenced by the excavated graves, which contain the remains of the ritual: jewelry, weapons, household items, and leftover food were placed next to the deceased. Thus the deceased was prepared for "life" after death. This indicates that the people of that era had faith in the soul, in afterlife. Funeral rites acquire special significance as a kind of connection between the existence of the living and the dead. It was believed that if the living did not fulfill their duties in relation to the dead, their spirits could destroy the clan or "take away" their fellow tribesmen into oblivion.
The existence of early religious beliefs also confirm the memory of the tents of the original painting. The schematic nature of these images gives grounds to speak about the presence of beliefs in supernatural bonds between man and certain animals. Sometimes people were depicted in animal skins, and sometimes they were half animals, half people. The movements reproduced in the drawings testify to the existence of a complex of magical actions, that is, the figure of the sorcerer appears as an intermediary between the world perceived at the sensory level and the supernatural world. Based on these findings, scientists concluded that religion existed during this period of history.
Early historical forms of religion and tribal cults: fetishism, totemism, taboo, magic, animism
The early forms of religion include: magic and fetishism, totemism and animism, agricultural cult and shamanism, which arose during the formation and development of the tribal system (from 100 to 40,000 years ago). This tribal system went through three main phases: early and late (developed) matriarchy and patriarchy. Each phase corresponded to its own form of religious ideas: early matriarchy - totemism, late - agricultural cult, patriarchy - shamanism. But all these forms of belief were accompanied by fetishism and magic, animism and animatism.
It has been established that primitive people have a very common honor of various objects that averted danger and brought good luck. This form religious beliefs was named fetishism(from the Portuguese Feitico - an amulet, a magical thing, or lat. Factitius - magically skillful) is a belief in the existence of supernatural properties of material objects. Objects of worship were first found by Portuguese sailors in West Africa in the 15th century, and then numerous analogues of fetishism were found in the religions of many peoples. For the first time, the phenomenon of fetishization was described by the French researcher Charles de Bruce (1709-1777) in his work "The Cult of Fetish Gods". He believed that fetishes are objects of inanimate nature that attracted the attention of a person with some special features. An object of worship, or a fetish, could be any object that struck a person’s imagination: a stone of a strange shape, a piece of wood, an animal’s tooth, etc. This object was attributed functions that were not characteristic of it (the ability to heal, protect from enemies, help in hunting). So, among the ancient Germans, spruce was considered a powerful fetish. In winter, they came to one of the tallest fir trees in the forest, asked her for help and patronage, sang and danced around her, hung gifts on her. And members of the Dakota tribe in North America, when they found a stone that looked like a human face, caressed it, painted it and called it grandfather, brought him gifts and asked for protection from danger. The custom of worshiping stones existed in many tribes of North Asia. It is not bypassed and the countries of Europe. But several centuries ago in England and France there was a ban on worshiping stones, which indicates the long-term preservation of fetishistic beliefs even during the dominance of the Christian religion in Europe.
A late manifestation of fetishism was the practice of artificially making fetishes. A new fetish was created by combining natural components (bark, leaves, roots) with objects that were traditionally considered miraculous (pieces of sacred trees, snails, growths on trees, sand from the confluence of two rivers, the tail of a scorpion, etc.). It is clear that people imagined how the mechanical combination of two objects would lead to a multiple increase in the supernatural qualities of the only created object of worship.
A peculiar climax of fetishistic ideas in Africa is the allocation of the so-called "fetish fetish" - the generally accepted sanctuary of large associations of tribes. However, the famous researcher Karl Meingoff considers it wrong to call the religion of the peoples of West Africa "fetishism"; in his opinion, it is better to call it "demonism". Thus, two conclusions can be drawn about West African "fetishism" that do not agree with the usual idea of it: first, it is a relatively late, and not the initial form of the religions of the peoples of Africa; secondly, the cult of fetishes in this country is mainly the cult of personal deputies.
During the period of European colonization of Africa, it was the fetishistic practice that remained almost the only opportunity to resist European colonialists and missionaries. It took on various forms - numerous secret societies were created, which aimed to find means to counter the "fetishes" of the whites. Items taken from Europeans (firearms, money, matches, locks, empty bottles) were introduced into fetishistic circulation. Some of the Africans even tried to secretly christen their own fetishes in order to increase their power.
In more later forms In religion, fetishism has been preserved in the form of worship of idols - material objects endowed with a mysterious power of influence with human or animal features. In modern religions, it exists in the form of veneration of sacred objects (crosses, icons, relics), and as an independent residue - in the form of belief in talismans and amulets. The talisman, from the point of view of superstitious people, brings happiness, the amulet protects from misfortune (horseshoes, amulets, pendants, etc.).
Another early form religious views can be considered totemism (in the language of the Ojibwe Indians (crane) ot-totem - its kind) - belief in the supernatural kinship of human groups (genus, tribe "I") with certain types of animals and plants (less often - natural phenomena and inanimate objects). totemism appears in scientific speech at the beginning of the 18th century and is fixed at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries in the works of the outstanding English ethnographer James Fraser (1854-1941).The first fundamental work on totemism was his book "Totemism and Exogamy", in which he put forward the hypothesis of the origin of totemism from ancient ideas about the nature of childbearing: a woman becomes pregnant when the spirit of a plant or animal enters the womb.Since in this case the child is involved in the life of an animal or plant, this animal or plant is endowed with special significance.
People looked at totems as deputies of the clan and tribe, defenders, assistants in unleashing all conflicts, they considered them brothers and sisters. Therefore, primitive people called their tribal groups the names of totems. For example, the North American Ojibwe Indians in the 17th century. had five tribal groups, which were called crane, catfish, loon, bear, marten. In Australia in late XVIII - early XIX in. Europeans were very surprised by the answer of the natives to the question "who are you?" - "I am a kangaroo", or "I am an insect larva". So through the ancestral totem, the Australians emphasized their tribal affiliation.
At first, only a real animal, plant, bird or insect was considered a totem. Then a more or less realistic image of it began to suffice, in the end people began to be content with any symbol, word or sound with which they designated their totem. Each person before going to bed and upon waking up said the name of her totem, because she thought that thanks to his supernatural support nothing bad would happen to her, on the contrary, she would be lucky both in hunting and in other matters.
The emergence of totemism is closely "connected with economic activity primitive man- Gathering and hunting. Plants and animals, which gave man the opportunity to exist, became objects of worship. At the first stages of the development of totemism, such worship did not exclude, namely, it made it possible to use totem animals and plants for food. Therefore, sometimes, to express their attitude towards the totem, primitive people used the words "this is our meat." Later, elements of social, primarily blood relations, were introduced into totemism. Members of the tribal group (blood relatives) began to believe that the ancestor and patron of their group is a certain totem animal or plant and their ancient ancestors, who combined the signs of people and the totem, possessed incredible abilities. This led, on the one hand, to the strengthening of the cult of ancestors, on the other hand, to a change in attitude towards the totem itself, including the emergence of a ban on its use in food, except when eating it was of little ritual nature and reminded of ancient norms and regulations.
So in the totem cult arises taboo- a system of prohibitions on the use of a totem animal in food or the task of causing any harm to it. The classic country where the taboo system has been most developed is Polynesia. According to J. Fraser, the word "taboo" from the Polynesian language is translated as "noted" or "specially highlighted." Taboos were an important mechanism for regulating social relations. Thus, gender and age taboos divided the primitive collective into marriage classes, thereby excluding sexual ligaments between close relatives. Food taboos strictly regulated the nature of the food that was given to the leader, warriors, the elderly, women, and children. Other taboos were designed to guarantee the inviolability of the home or hearth, the regulation of burial rules, the prohibition of a stranger from communicating with a woman after her marriage, and the like.
These taboos were very strict. Researchers give the following examples of violation of prohibitions. One day, one of the tribal leaders of New Zealand left scraps from his dinner, which one of the ordinary members of the tribe ate. When the latter realized that he had used the leader’s food (it was forbidden), he fell to the ground, began to convulse and died These examples are not isolated.The very fact of awareness of the violation of the taboo, understood as something sacred, paralyzed the will of the violator, as well as the ability of his body to live.
Totem taboos outlived totemism itself for a long time and remained in more developed religions in the form of corresponding prohibitions on the use of "unclean (dirty)" types of food. So, for example, among Jews and Muslims, pork is considered dirty meat and therefore is not suitable for food. No one can give a clear explanation for this, and the fact that this is a dirty animal looks unconvincing, because the pig is very picky about food.
In the conditions of the collapse of the tribal system, the primary totemic beliefs develop into anthropomorphic cults of nature, the elements, animals, where these objects of worship are provided already like a human face. Later, elements of totemism entered all religions. Its influence is felt in Hinduism, where many animals (for example, a cow, an elephant, a monkey, a snake) are revered as sacred. Remnants of this original form of religion can also be seen in the images of centaurs from Greek Olympian mythology. Traces of totemism are clearly visible in Christianity. The Holy Spirit is still depicted today as a dove, and Christ is often called the "lamb (lamb) of God" or is symbolized by a fish. The Christian sacrament of communion originates from the ritual ritual eating of the totem: it is believed that under the guise of bread and wine, believers eat the body and beat the blood of Christ.
Along with totemism and taboo, an outstanding place in the life of primitive man was occupied by magic(from the Greek. Mageia - witchcraft, divination) - belief in the existence of supernatural ways of influencing nature or man, that is the world. There is no separation between magic and religion, it is impossible to oppose the religion of magic, since each cult includes magical practice - prayers, from primitive to modern religions. Man is a product of matter, and therefore he is completely in its power.
The origins of this form of religious belief are more fully described by the English ethnographer Bronisław Malinowski (1884-1942) in his work Magic, Science and Religion. Studying the life of the natives of the Pacific Trobriand Islands, he noticed an interesting pattern. It turned out that the natives use magic in agriculture - in planting tuberous plants, but magic is not used in the cultivation of fruit trees, which give a stable harvest. In fishing, magic tricks are practiced when fishing for sharks or other large and dangerous fish, while when catching small fish, magic is considered superfluous. The workshop of boats is always accompanied by magical rites, but magic is not used in the construction of houses. These studies allowed Malinowski to conclude that the realm of magic is a high-risk activity. It comes to the rescue if there is no reliable algorithm for achieving success, when a person is not confident in his abilities, if it is driven by chance and uncertainty. This makes her rely on the help of supernatural forces and perform magical actions.
The relations that have been established between man and nature have always had a dual character: on the one hand, the dominance of omnipotent nature over a helpless man, on the other, the impact on nature, to which man aspired, using his imperfect forces and abilities. These techniques are magical practice.
Imitation of hunting means should contribute to the success of the hunt itself. Before going in search of kangaroos, the Australians dance rhythmically around the picture, which depicts the desired prey.
Magic is divided into six types: production, healing, love, harmful (destructive), meteorological (weather magic) and military. This species classification is far from complete, since many subspecies can be distinguished in each of its species. So, industrial magic, in turn, had many varieties: hunting, fishing, construction, agricultural, pottery, educational, sports, blacksmithing, etc.
Sometimes they also talk about "black", harmful, and "white", positive magic.
Harmful magic pursued the goal of causing harm by supernatural means to an individual or individuals. Among the peoples of the Southern Hemisphere, the following methods dominated: targeting the enemy with a pointed stick or bone, the Northern Hemisphere - "damage" through food, drinks, clothing, and the like. An important means of harmful magic is garbage, if it is secretly thrown into someone else's courtyard "I.
One of the varieties of harmful magic is the belief in the "evil eye", which was endowed with both individual animals (snake, lion, cat, etc.) and people (slanted, with sunken dark eyes, with frowned or fused eyebrows). There is a belief that evil eye people and animals get sick, cows and goats are not milked, the hunter's weapons lose their combat properties, and so on.
military magic close to harmful in its goals and objectives. The only difference is that the harmful one is secret and one-sided, while the military one is a public need to overcome the active resistance of the victim.
love magic had a dual focus: to call the train or vice versa, to destroy it ("bewitch" or "where does it come from",
"dry" or "widsushity"). Love magic should be considered perhaps the most ancient type of magic. Its appearance is due to the fact that in this area there were a lot of incomprehensible things for a person.
healing magic differed from other types of magic by an exceptional variety of rituals. It is clear that this is ethnoscience. It is very difficult to draw a line between medicine and magic: rubbing the patient with beeswax was practiced to scare away the spirits of the forest, although it was a good warming agent.
Production magic- its occurrence is reduced to rational economic activity people who use disguises, dressing up, poking animals, imitating their voices. Ancient forms of industrial magic are recorded in rock paintings.
weather magic- this is the only type of magic that does not depend on human will and actions.
Usually, specially trained people were engaged in magical techniques - wizards and shamans, who sincerely believed in their ability to communicate with spirits, convey to them the requests of fellow tribesmen, influence spirits or miraculous powers. But the main thing is not that they themselves believed in their unusual abilities, but that the team believed them and turned to them for help at critical moments. That is, wizards and shamans enjoyed special honors and respect from their fellow tribesmen. So, witchcraft practice not opposed to religion, but on the contrary, merges with it.
Belief in magic has survived to this day as an element of modern religions (belief in the supernatural power of rituals: prayer, sacrifice, purification, fasting) and in an independent form (fortune telling on cards).
Animistic ideas were also widespread in the early tribal society. Animism (from lat. Anima - soul) - belief in spirits and souls as a counterpart of the body, the carrier of human life, as well as animals and plants. A detailed analysis of animistic beliefs was described by the English anthropologist, ethnologist and religious scholar Edward Taylor (1832-1917) in his work Primitive Culture. He was sure that the starting point for animism was the reflection of primitive man on such questions: what is the difference between a living and a dead body, the cause of sleep, ecstasy, illness, death, as well as the experience of trance and hallucinations. But unable to correctly explain these complex phenomena, she forms the concept of the soul in the body and leaves it from time to time. Further, more complex ideas are formed: about the existence of the soul after the death of the body, the afterlife, etc.
Then the idea of the human soul began to be transferred to the outside world. At first, people thought that souls could take the form of birds, sometimes animals and plants. As can be seen, animistic and totemic beliefs are closely intertwined here, although people needed totemic images not by themselves, but as receptacles for spirits.
Later, a belief in the transmigration of souls arose, which can be found in many religions, especially Hinduism. Even later, people began to spiritualize inanimate phenomena - stones, mountains, rivers and lakes, the sun and stars. This was necessary, firstly, in order to explain the cause of all natural phenomena in a completely satisfactory way, and secondly, to attribute to the spirits everything good and bad that happened throughout life. The immediate cause of the appearance of such animistic views may also be a peculiar interpretation by primitive people of a number of acoustic and optical phenomena: echo, noise, shadows, etc. They seemed to them evidence not only of the existence human soul, but also similar incorporeal counterparts of almost everything that exists in the world. This is already the stage of late animism, or demonism, which leads to the appearance of faith in God, angels, Satan, mermaids, gnomes, fairies, nymphs, water, immortal souls and the like. Animism lives on its own in the belief in ghosts, spiritualism (the ability to communicate with the souls of the dead with the help of various devices).
The birth of primitive religions
The simplest forms religious beliefs already existed 40 thousand years ago. It was to this time that the appearance of a modern type of man (homo sapiens), which differed significantly from its alleged predecessors in physical structure, physiological and psychological characteristics, dates back. But his most important difference was that he was a reasonable person, capable of abstract thinking.
The practice of burial of primitive people testifies to the existence of religious beliefs in this remote period of human history. Archaeologists have established that they were buried in specially prepared places. At the same time, certain rituals were performed to prepare the dead for the afterlife. Their bodies were covered with a layer of ocher, weapons, household items, jewelry, etc. were placed next to them. Obviously, at that time religious and magical ideas were already taking shape that the deceased continued to live, that along with the real world there is another world where the dead live.
Religious beliefs of primitive man reflected in the works rock and cave art, which were discovered in the XIX-XX centuries. in southern France and northern Italy. Most of the ancient rock paintings are hunting scenes, images of people and animals. An analysis of the drawings allowed scientists to conclude that primitive man believed in a special kind of connection between people and animals, as well as in the ability to influence the behavior of animals using certain magical techniques.
Finally, it was established that the veneration of various objects, which should bring good luck and avert danger, was widespread among primitive people.
nature worship
Religious beliefs and cults of primitive people developed gradually. The primary form of religion was the worship of nature.. The concept of "nature" was unknown to primitive peoples, the object of their worship was an impersonal natural force, denoted by the concept of "mana".
totemism
Totemism should be considered an early form of religious beliefs.
totemism- belief in a fantastic, supernatural relationship between a tribe or clan and a totem (plant, animal, objects).
Totemism is the belief in the existence of a family relationship between a group of people (tribe, clan) and a certain type of animal or plant. Totemism was the first form of awareness of the unity of the human collective and its connection with the outside world. The life of the tribal collective was closely connected with certain types of animals that its members hunted.
Subsequently, within the framework of totemism, a whole system of prohibitions arose, which were called taboo. They were an important mechanism for regulating social relations. Thus, the age-sex taboo excluded sexual relations between close relatives. Food taboos strictly regulated the nature of the food that was to be given to the leader, warriors, women, old people and children. A number of other taboos were intended to guarantee the inviolability of the home or hearth, to regulate the rules of burial, to fix positions in the group, the rights and obligations of members of the primitive collective.
Magic is an early form of religion.
Magic- the belief that a person has supernatural power, which is manifested in magical rites.
Magic is a belief that arose among primitive people in the ability to influence any natural phenomena through certain symbolic actions (conspiracies, spells, etc.).
Originating in ancient times, magic was preserved and continued to develop over many millennia. If initially magical ideas and rituals were of a general nature, then their differentiation gradually occurred. Modern experts classify magic according to the methods and purposes of influence.
Types of magic
Types of magic by methods of influence:
contact (direct contact of the carrier of magical power with the object on which the action is directed), initial (a magical act directed at an object that is inaccessible to the subject of magical activity);
partial (indirect effect through cut hair, legs, food remnants, which in one way or another get to the owner of mating power);
imitative (impact on some similarity of a certain subject).
Types of magic by social orientation and goals of impact:
malicious (spoiling);
military (a system of rituals aimed at ensuring victory over the enemy);
love (aimed at invoking or destroying sexual desire: lapel, love spell);
medical;
fishing (aimed at achieving good luck in the process of hunting or fishing);
meteorological (weather change in the right direction);
Magic is sometimes called primitive science or ancestral science because it contained elementary knowledge about the surrounding world and natural phenomena.
Fetishism
Among primitive people, the veneration of various objects that were supposed to bring good luck and ward off dangers was of particular importance. This form of religious belief is called "fetishism".
Fetishism The belief that a certain object has supernatural powers.
Any object that struck the imagination of a person could become a fetish: a stone of an unusual shape, a piece of wood, an animal skull, a metal or clay product. Properties that were not inherent in it were attributed to this object (the ability to heal, protect from danger, help in hunting, etc.).
Most often, the object that became a fetish was chosen by trial and error. If, after this choice, a person managed to achieve success in practical activities, he believed that a fetish helped him in this, and kept it for himself. If a person suffered any failure, then the fetish was thrown out, destroyed or replaced by another. This treatment of fetishes suggests that primitive people did not always respect the subject they chose with due respect.
Speaking of early forms religion, one cannot fail to mention obanimism.
Animism- Belief in the existence of the soul and spirits.
Being at a fairly low level of development, primitive people tried to find protection from various diseases, natural disasters, endowing nature and the surrounding objects on which existence depended, with supernatural powers and worshiping them, personifying them as the spirits of these objects.
It was believed that all natural phenomena, objects and people have a soul. Souls could be evil and benevolent. Sacrifice was practiced in favor of these spirits. Belief in spirits and in the existence of the soul is preserved in all modern religions.
Animistic beliefs are a very significant part of almost all religions of the world. Belief in spirits, evil spirits, an immortal soul - all these are modifications of the animistic representations of the primitive era. The same can be said about other early forms of religious belief. Some of them were assimilated by the religions that replaced them, others were pushed into the sphere of everyday superstitions and prejudices.
shamanism
shamanism- the belief that an individual (shaman) has supernatural powers.
Shamanism arises at a later stage of development, when people with a special social status appear. Shamans were the keepers of information great importance for a given family or tribe. The shaman performed a ritual called kamlanie (a ritual with dances, songs, during which the shaman communicated with the spirits). During the ritual, the shaman allegedly received instructions from the spirits about how to solve a problem or treat the sick.
Elements of shamanism are present in modern religions. So, for example, priests are credited with a special power that allows them to turn to God.
In the early stages of the development of society, primitive forms of religious beliefs did not exist in their pure form. They intertwined with each other in the most bizarre way. Therefore, it is hardly possible to raise the question of which of the forms arose earlier and which later.
The considered forms of religious beliefs can be found among all peoples at the primitive stage of development. As social life becomes more complex, the forms of worship become more diverse and require closer study.
Questions for credit on the course
"History of Religion"
Basic forms of primitive beliefs.
Animism is the belief in the existence of souls and spirits. Rivers and stones, plants and animals, sun and wind, spinning wheel and knife, sleep and illness, share and lack of share, life and death - everything had a soul, a will, the ability to act, harm or help a person. Spirits lived in the invisible other world, but penetrated into the visible world of people. Worship and magic were supposed to help people somehow get along with the spirits - propitiate them or outsmart them. There are elements of animism in any religion.
Totemism is the belief of a tribe in their kinship with a plant or animal. The totem was conceived as real ancestor, the tribe bore his name, worshiped him. The life of the whole family and each of its members individually depended on the totem. A common occurrence was the attempts of a primitive man to influence the totem with various magical ways It is likely that the famous cave drawings and sculptures of the Upper Paleolithic era in Europe are also associated with totemism.
Fetishism is the worship of objects, the recognition of their special qualities that can control life and external forces. The object was conceived as a full-fledged being. The objects of worship can be stones, sticks, trees, any objects. They can be either natural or man-made. The forms of veneration of fetishes are also varied.
Magic is the belief in the ability to influence the outside world through certain rituals and spells (weather, life, hunting, etc.), a number of symbolic actions and rituals with spells and rituals. The most stable manifestation of fishing magic is hunting prohibitions, superstitions, signs, beliefs.
Shamanism is a well-established name in science for a complex of people's ideas about the ways of conscious and purposeful interaction with the "other" world, primarily with spirits, which is carried out by a shaman.
TABOO magical prohibition. TABOO objects could be things, animals, people, words, actions, etc. Some of these objects were considered sacred, others "impure".
Contact with both the sacred and the "unclean" threatened punishment. Gender and age taboos excluded sexual relations between close relatives, food taboos determined the nature of the food that was intended for children, the elderly, the leader, and soldiers. Other TABOOs guaranteed the distribution of rights and obligations among members of the community, the inviolability of the home, and so on.
Mana in the beliefs of the peoples of Melanesia and Polynesia is a supernatural force existing in nature, the carriers of which can be individuals, animals, various objects, as well as "spirits". Mana manipulation was used to achieve immediate goals: good weather, a bountiful harvest, a cure for an illness, success in love, or victory in battle. This force is qualitatively different from physical forces, and it acts in an arbitrary way. The fact that a person is a good warrior, he owes not only to his own strengths and capabilities, but also to the strength that the mana of the deceased warrior gives him; this mana is contained in a small stone amulet hanging around his neck, in several leaves attached to his belt, in a spell he utters.
Traditional beliefs of primitive hunters.
1. The ritual function of the burial of animals. Thus, p.o. either they made sacrifices to the Supreme Being, or they hoped that the meat on the bones would grow back.
2. Hunting magic. It meant either the drawing of rock paintings, or the conduct of special rituals with the participation of shamans. It is possible to reconstruct certain aspects of prehistoric religions from rituals and beliefs typical of primitive hunters. ecstasy of the shamanic type speaks, firstly, of the belief in the existence of a “soul” capable of leaving the body and traveling freely around the world, and secondly, that during this journey the soul can meet supernatural beings and ask them for help or about blessing.
Shamanic ecstasy also includes "possession", i.e. the ability to enter the bodies of other people or let in the soul of the deceased, some spirit or deity.
3. Separate existence of men and women. The hunters believed that there were such rituals in which either only men or only women took part. The separate existence of men and women suggests the existence of secret rites in which only men can take part and which are performed before leaving for a big hunt. Such rituals are the prerogative of adults - as in "male unions". "Secrets" are revealed to teenagers through initiation rituals. Some authors have seen images of initiation in the drawings of the Montespan cave, but this concept has been challenged.
4. Ritual choreography. It was carried out to calm the soul of a killed animal or to ensure the multiplication of prey. Hunters lead round dances - either to calm the soul of a killed animal, or to ensure the multiplication of prey.
5. Faith in magical power speeches (praise, mockery, curses, anathemas) and gestures that played an important role in rituals.
Religious meaning of primitive rock art.
Since the drawings are located at a considerable distance from the entrance to the caves, the researchers admit that we are dealing with a kind of sanctuary. In addition, many of the caves were uninhabited, and the difficulty of entering them increased the touch of the divine. Cabaret Cave is a real labyrinth, the journey through which takes several hours. , in the caves of Nyo and the Three Brothers. Images of bears, lions and others
wild animals pierced by many arrows, and clay figurines of one bear and several lions with deep round holes found in the cave of Montespan, were interpreted as evidence of "hunting magic". The scene in the Cave of the Three Brothers has been interpreted as a depiction of a dancer dressed in a buffalo skin playing an instrument resembling a flute. This is a typical ritual behavior of modern hunting peoples. The so-called "X-ray" drawings, i.e. sketches of the skeleton and internal organs of the animal were also associated with shamanism. They are recorded in France and Norway. This art form is characteristic of hunting cultures, but the religious ideology with which it is imbued is of a shamanic nature. Because only a shaman with supernatural vision is able to "see his own backbone."
Mythology of the Iron Age.
The appearance of iron in people's lives played a huge role not only in the economy, but also in religion. Caves and mines are likened to the womb of Mother Earth. Throughout the world, miners practice rituals that include cleansing, fasting, meditation, prayer, and worship. Ores charged with sacredness are sent to furnaces. The Master replaces Mother Earth in order to speed up and improve the process of "maturing". The furnaces act as a kind of new, artificial womb where the ores reach their maturity. Hence the infinite number of precautions accompanying the smelting process. Casters and blacksmiths were perceived as "masters of fire" - along with shamans, healers and sorcerers.
In a number of mythologies, divine smiths forge the weapons of the gods, for example, in the Egyptian version of the myth, Ptah forges a weapon that allows Horus to defeat Set; The divine blacksmith Tvashtar makes weapons for Indra to fight Vritra; Hephaestus forges lightning, with which Zeus defeats Typhon. The blacksmith works for the gods besides being an architect and a craftsman, the God-Blacksmith is associated with music and singing, so that in some cultures blacksmiths and coppersmiths are at the same time musicians, poets, medicine men and sorcerers.
History of Ziusudra (Sumer).
Ziusudra (also Ziudsura, in the Babylonian texts Atrahasis - “superior in wisdom”, in Assyrian - Utnapishtim; other Greek Xisoutros, Xisutrus) is the hero of the Sumerian flood story, possibly created in the III millennium BC. e. - the ninth and last pre-dynastic king of the legendary period before the Great Flood. Last of two known mythical kings of the fifth city-state ancient Sumer Shuruppak, located in the south of ancient Mesopotamia and ruled for 36,000 years, according to the Nippur king list.
He is credited with divine origin. According to the king list, before the Flood, Sumer was ruled by 9 kings in succession of 5 city-states for an incredible 277,200 years (and two of them ruled for 54,600 years). Then the flood washed away (the country). After the flood washed away the country and the kingdom was sent down from heaven (for the second time), Kish became the seat of the throne. It ended the Early Dynastic I period.
The institution of kingship was brought back to earth after the flood, since this catastrophe was tantamount to "the end of the world." The only person who survived was Ziusudra, according to the Sumerian tradition. However, unlike Noah, he was not allowed to live on the land freed from the waters. To some extent deified, in any case, endowed with immortality, Ziusudra was sent to the country of Tilmun. Despite the disagreement and resistance of some members of the pantheon, the Great Gods decided to destroy humanity by sending a flood upon it. Ziusudra learns from her intercessor about An and Enlil's decision. Apparently, Ziusudra is receiving precise instructions regarding the construction of the ark. After seven days and seven nights the sun reappears
Table XI of the Epic of Gilgamesh contains Utnapishtim's account of how he was the sole survivor of the flood. Fragments of this narrative were also found in the royal list during the excavations at Nippur in 1893 and published in 1914 by Arno Pöbel. They date back to the 18th century BC. e. In some Sumerian texts, Ziusudra appears as the king of the city of Shuruppak, so there is reason to believe that a real historical person became the prototype of a mythological hero.
Theogony of Heliopolis.
Like many other traditions, Egyptian cosmogony begins with the emergence of a hill from the primordial waters. The appearance of this "First Place" above the vast expanses of water meant the emergence of the earth, but also the beginning of light, life and consciousness. In Heliopolis, a place called "Sandy Hill" and which was part of the temple of the sun, was considered the primary hill.
Hermopolis was famous for its lake, on which the cosmogonic lotus rose. In accordance with the solar theology of Heliopolis, a city located in the upper reaches of the delta, the god Ra-Atum-Khepri created the first divine couple - Shu (Atmosphere) and Tefnut, who became the parents of the god Geb (Earth) and the goddess Nut (Sky). The demiurge performed the act of creation by masturbating or spitting out saliva. These expressions are innocently crude, but their meaning is clear: deities are born from the very substance supreme god. In Hermopolis (Middle Egypt), theologians developed a complex doctrine about the ogdoad, a group of eight gods, later united by Ptah. In the primary lake of Hermopolis, a Lotus arose, from which emerged
"The sacred child, the perfect heir, born of the ogdoad, the divine seed of the very first Predecessor Gods, "he who bound the seed of gods and men."
The myth of Osiris and Isis.
According to myths, at the head of the pantheon Egyptian gods stood the sun god Amon-Ra. The myths also tell of a divine couple - the earth god Gebe and the goddess of the starry sky Nut - who had four children: the gods Osiris and Set and the goddesses Isis and Nephthys. The Egyptians claimed that Osiris and his wife, the beautiful Isis, were their first rulers.
The divine couple conveyed to people the knowledge of the land capable of sprouts, initiated them into the mysteries of arts and crafts, taught writing and the canons of building temples. People got the opportunity to live according to the laws of Heaven in unity with Nature. Osiris and Isis revealed to them the mysteries of life and death and their meaning own existence. They awakened in the souls the love for Wisdom and the craving for knowledge. For people it was the most beautiful and happy time.
Seth, who hated his brother Osiris, came up with a cunning plan to kill him. He found out the size of his body and invited him to a holiday, where he showed the guests a sarcophagus and promised to give it to someone who would fit it. All the guests tried to lie down in the sarcophagus, but it only suited Osiris. As soon as he lay down, Seth slammed the lid of the sarcophagus and filled it with lead, and then drowned him in the Nile.
Osiris' wife Isis, being pregnant, could not fight Set, and he appropriated power over the whole world.
Isis searched for her husband's body. The children told her about Set's atrocity. Isis followed the trail of the sarcophagus all the way to Byblos, where she found it hidden in a tree trunk from which the column of the palace of King Byblos was made. Isis was hired at the court as a servant and won the confidence of the queen. After Isis revealed herself to her, the queen convinced her husband to release the sarcophagus. After that, Isis brought the body of Osiris back to Egypt and revived him with great spells.
For Seth, the resurrection of Osiris did not go unnoticed. With all his newfound power, he fell upon him, killed him, dismembered the corpse and scattered the pieces throughout the country. Isis collected them to resurrect her husband again, but found that the crocodile (fish) ate his phallus, and replaced it with a wooden (clay).
Osiris did not rise, but became the ruler of the underworld; Set consolidated his power over Egypt and the whole world. However, Osiris returned from the underworld and prepared his son Horus for revenge. Horus began a tireless and long war against Typhon (Setha) and his allies and eventually defeated them all, taking over his father's throne. Such is the content of the myth, according to Plutarch. Plutarch's version coincides mainly with the mythological and religious ideas of the Egyptians about Isis and Osiris, reflected in the original Egyptian texts; however, these texts are much richer, they present a greater variety of mythological episodes and, perhaps, variants of the myth that remained unknown to Plutarch or omitted in his sparse narrative. So, for example, in the story of Plutarch there is not a word about the fact that Isis conceived her son "Horus-child" from the already deceased Osiris, there are no details, sometimes very interesting, about the mortal fight between Horus and Seth, about the revival of the deceased Osiris by Isis, about his mummification, etc.
19. The most significant religious texts of Ancient Egypt (brief description).
« Book of the Dead" in Ancient Egypt- a collection of Egyptian hymns and religious texts placed in the tomb to help the deceased overcome dangers underworld and find prosperity in the afterlife. Various copies of the Book of the Dead may contain from several to two hundred chapters of various sizes, ranging from long poetic hymns to single-line magical formulas. The name "Book of the Dead" was given by the Egyptologist R. Lepsius, but it would be more correct to call it the "Book of the Resurrection", since it Egyptian name Literally translated as "Chapters on going out into the light of day."
This magical-religious collection gives the impression of a chaotic heap of prayers, hymns, hymns, and incantations associated with the funeral cult. Gradually, elements of morality penetrate the Book of the Dead. At its core, the "Book of the Dead" is a religious collection, so the elements of morality contained in it are intertwined with ancient magic. So, in the 30th chapter of the Book of the Dead, the deceased conjures his heart not to testify against him at the posthumous trial. This motley mixture of religious and magical beliefs is explained by the fact that the "Book of the Dead" was compiled and edited over a number of centuries. Ancient texts were traditionally preserved until late, and their content often became incomprehensible and even required explanations, which, for example, were added to the 17th chapter of the Book of the Dead.
Of particular interest to researchers is the 125th chapter, which describes the posthumous judgment of Osiris over the deceased. He and Anubis weigh the heart of the deceased (the symbol of the soul among the ancient Egyptians). On one cup of the scales there is a heart, that is, the conscience of the deceased, light or burdened with sins, and on the other the Truth in the form of a feather of the goddess Maat or a figure of Maat. If a person led a righteous life on earth, then his heart and feather weighed the same, if he sinned, then his heart weighed more. The acquitted deceased was sent to the afterlife, the sinner was eaten by the monster Amat (lion with the head of a crocodile).
Texts of the Sarcophagi- a collection of ancient Egyptian funerary spells carved on the surface of sarcophagi. For the first time, these inscriptions appeared during the First Intermediate Period. These texts, borrowed in part from earlier sources such as the Pyramid Texts, contain significantly new material related to the daily needs of man. This suggests that these texts were used not only by the royal nobility, but also by ordinary rich people.
Most of the texts written on the sarcophagi belong to the period of the Middle Kingdom. However, sometimes such inscriptions are found on the walls of tombs, on the surface of chests, canopies, in papyri, and even on mummy masks. Due to the limited surface on which the texts were applied, they were often cut.
Unlike the Pyramid Texts, which focus primarily on all things divine, the Sarcophagus Texts emphasize the earthly elements of the afterlife ruled by Osiris. In the Coffin Texts, Osiris offers an afterlife to everyone by automatically assigning names prefixed with "Osiris" to the dead. This underworld is described as a place full of terrible creatures, traps and dangers that the deceased must overcome. Spells written in the Texts of the sarcophagi allow the dead to protect themselves from dangers and thereby avoid a second death.
Also, the Texts of the sarcophagi say that all people will be judged by Osiris and his assistants, according to the deeds committed by people during their lifetime. The texts speak of the use of balance, which became a strong point of judgment in the later Book of the Dead. The texts admonish the deceased on how to avoid such tiring and routine activities as physical labor, using all kinds of magic spells.
On top of that, these texts have detailed description the land of the dead and its inhabitants.
Pyramid Texts- the oldest work of Egyptian religious and funeral literature that has come down to us. They got their name from their location: they cover the walls of the interior of the pyramids located in Saqqara, the necropolis of the pharaohs of Memphis. The texts themselves are most likely older than the pyramids, and were created long before the unification of Northern and Southern Egypt (about 3000 BC).
Despite the fact that a relatively small number of texts have suffered from time and tomb robbers, their reading, translation and interpretation to this day create many problems. The texts are very complex both grammatically and lexically, and the spelling is unusual (because of its antiquity). They contain many allusions to myths and legends unknown to us.
S. Mercer singles out the following plots among the Pyramid Texts:
· Funeral ritual with the offering of gifts, which is associated with the idea of the reunion of parts of a disintegrated body, its revival and the resurrection of the deceased king.
· Magical formulas in protection from troubles and misfortunes.
The ritual of worship.
· Religious hymns.
· Mythical formulas identifying the deceased king with one or another deity.
· Prayers and supplications on behalf of the late king.
· Glorification of the greatness and power of the late king in heaven (doxology).
For a long time, scientists believed that the individual texts of the pyramids had nothing to do with each other. However, M. E. Mathieu in 1947 proposed a new order of reading texts (from the entrance to the pyramid to the pharaoh's sarcophagus). She also expressed the point of view that the Pyramid Texts are the words of a single funeral ritual that were pronounced during that part of this ceremony that took place inside the pyramid.
Orpheus; Orphic views.
In the north of Greece, in Thrace, lived the singer Orpheus. He had a wonderful gift of songs, and his fame spread throughout the land of the Greeks.
For the songs, the beautiful Eurydice fell in love with him. She became his wife. But their happiness was short-lived. Once Orpheus and Eurydice were in the forest. Orpheus played his seven-stringed cithara and sang. Eurydice was gathering flowers in the meadows. Imperceptibly, she moved away from her husband, into the wilderness. Suddenly it seemed to her that someone was running through the forest, breaking branches, chasing her, she was frightened and, throwing flowers, ran back to Orpheus. She ran, not understanding the road, through the thick grass and in a swift run she stepped into the snake's nest. The snake coiled around her leg and stung. Eurydice screamed loudly in pain and fear and fell on the grass. Orpheus heard from a distance the plaintive cry of his wife and hurried to her. But he saw how large black wings flashed between the trees - it was Death that carried Eurydice to the underworld.
Great was the grief of Orpheus. He left people and spent whole days alone, wandering through the forests, pouring out his longing in songs. And there was such power in these melancholy songs that the trees left their places and surrounded the singer. Animals came out of their holes, birds left their nests, stones moved closer. And everyone listened to how he yearned for his beloved.
Nights and days passed, but Orpheus could not be consoled, his sadness grew with every hour.
No, I can't live without Eurydice! he said. - The earth is not sweet to me without it. Let Death take me, even if in the underworld I will be together with my beloved!
But Death did not come. And Orpheus decided to go to the realm of the dead himself.
For a long time he searched for the entrance to the underworld and, finally, in the deep cave of Tenara he found a stream that flowed into the underground river Styx. Along the bed of this stream, Orpheus descended deep underground and reached the banks of the Styx. Beyond this river began the realm of the dead.
Black and deep are the waters of the Styx, and it is terrible for the living to step into them. Orpheus heard sighs, quiet crying behind his back - these were the shadows of the dead, like him, waiting for the crossing to the country from which there is no return to anyone.
Here a boat separated from the opposite shore: the carrier of the dead, Charon, sailed for new aliens. Silently moored to the shore Charon, and the shadows obediently filled the boat. Orpheus began to ask Charon:
Take me to the other side! But Charon refused:
Only the dead I bring to the other side. When you die, I will come for you!
Have pity! Orpheus pleaded. - I don't want to live anymore! It's hard for me to stay on the ground alone! I want to see my Eurydice!
The stern carrier pushed him away and was about to set sail from the shore, but the strings of the cithara rang plaintively, and Orpheus began to sing. Under the gloomy vaults of Hades, sad and tender sounds resounded. The cold waves of Styx stopped, and Charon himself, leaning on the oar, listened to the song. Orpheus entered the boat, and Charon obediently carried him to the other side. Hearing the hot song of the living about undying love, the shadows of the dead flew from all sides. Orpheus boldly walked through the silent kingdom of the dead, and no one stopped him.
So he came to the palace of the lord underworld- Aida and entered the vast and gloomy hall. High on a golden throne sat the formidable Hades and next to him was his beautiful queen Persephone.
With a sparkling sword in his hand, in a black cloak, with huge black wings, the god of Death stood behind Hades, and around him crowded his servants, Kera, who fly on the battlefield and take life from warriors. Severe judges of the underworld sat aside from the throne and judged the dead for their earthly deeds.
In the dark corners of the hall, behind the columns, Memories were hidden. They had scourges of living snakes in their hands, and they painfully stung those who stood before the court.
Orpheus saw many monsters in the realm of the dead: Lamia, who steals small children from their mothers at night, and the terrible Empusa with donkey legs, drinking the blood of people, and ferocious Stygian dogs.
Only the younger brother of the god of Death - the god of Sleep, young Hypnos, beautiful and joyful, rushed around the hall on his light wings, stirring in a silver horn a sleepy drink that no one on earth can resist - even the great Thunderer Zeus himself falls asleep when Hypnos splashes into him with his potion.
Hades glared menacingly at Orpheus, and everyone around trembled.
But the singer approached the throne of the gloomy lord and sang even more inspirationally: he sang about his love for Eurydice.
Without breathing, Persephone listened to the song, and tears rolled from her beautiful eyes. Terrible Hades bowed his head on his chest and thought. The God of Death lowered his shining sword.
The singer fell silent, and the silence lasted for a long time. Then Hades raised his head and asked:
What are you looking for, singer, in the realm of the dead? Tell me what you want, and I promise you to fulfill your request.
Orpheus said to Hades:
Lord! Our life on earth is short, and Death overtakes all of us someday and takes us to your kingdom - none of the mortals can escape it. But I, alive, myself came to the kingdom of the dead to ask you: give me back my Eurydice! She has lived so little on earth, so little time to rejoice, so little love ... Let her go, lord, to earth! Let her live a little longer in the world, let her enjoy the sun, the warmth and light and the greenery of the fields, the beauty of the spring forests and my love. After all, after all, she will return to you!
Thus spoke Orpheus and asked Persephone:
Intercede for me, beautiful queen! You know how good life on earth is! Help me get my Eurydice back!
Let it be as you ask! Hades said to Orpheus. - I will return Eurydice to you. You can take her with you up to the bright land. But you have to promise...
Whatever you order! Orpheus exclaimed. - I'm ready for anything to see my Eurydice again!
You must not see her until you come out into the light,” said Hades. - Return to earth and know that Eurydice will follow you. But don't look back and don't try to look at her. If you look back, you will lose her forever!
And Hades ordered Eurydice to follow Orpheus.
Orpheus quickly went to the exit from the realm of the dead. Like a spirit, he passed the country of Death, and the shadow of Eurydice followed him. They entered Charon's boat, and he silently carried them back to the shore of life. A steep rocky path led up to the ground.
Slowly climbed Mount Orpheus. It was dark and quiet all around, and it was quiet behind him, as if no one was following him. Only his heart was beating.
"Eurydice! Eurydice!
At last it began to lighten up ahead, the exit to the ground was close. And the closer the exit was, the brighter it became in front, and now everything became clearly visible around.
Anxiety squeezed the heart of Orpheus: is Eurydice here? Does he follow him? Forgetting everything in the world, Orpheus stopped and looked around.
Where are you, Eurydice? Let me take a look at you! For a moment, quite close, he saw a sweet shadow, a dear, beautiful face... But only for a moment. Immediately the shadow of Eurydice flew away, disappeared, melted into the darkness.
With a desperate cry, Orpheus began to descend back along the path and again came to the shore of the black Styx and called for the carrier. But in vain he prayed and called: no one answered his prayers. For a long time Orpheus sat alone on the banks of the Styx and waited. He didn't wait for anyone.
He had to return to earth and live. But he could not forget his only love - Eurydice, and the memory of her lived in his heart and in his songs.
The semi-mythical Orpheus is credited with the creation of one of the most significant pre-philosophical schools Ancient Greece- orphism. This school was essentially religious, and Orphism can be called a kind of "heresy" based on traditional Greek religion. Nevertheless, "Orpheus" and Orphism played a certain role in the genesis of philosophical thinking, predetermining some of the principles of early Greek science.
A number of original writings have been preserved from the Orphic school: these are Orphic theogony, sacred legends, and more. Basically, these works came in fragments - either on plates or papyri, or in later retellings. However, already the classical critical tradition (Plato and Aristotle) retells the main provisions of the Orphic school. The progenitors of everything, after Hesiod, are the Ocean and Tethys, born from Gaia and Uranus. The ocean and Tethys were formerly entwined together, but then separated under the influence of "fierce enmity." At the same time, Ether was born, in which planets, stars, mountains and seas appeared. The emergence of an animal is “like weaving a net” - it arises from organs gradually (in this Orpheus predetermined the proto-evolutionary concept of Empedocles).
Orphism is a mystical doctrine in ancient Greece and Thrace, associated with the name of the mythical poet and singer Orpheus. Appeared approximately in the VI century BC. e. - the first Orphic hymns belong to this time. The doctrine was emphatically esoteric in nature.
The Orphics believed in retribution after death (there are also elements of metempsychosis), the immortality of the soul (“imprisoned” in the “dungeon” of the body), the bifurcation of human nature into good (the nature of Zagreus-Dionysus) and evil (the nature of the titans who tore it to pieces) beginnings. Initially, Orphism was perceived as a purely grassroots folk cult and was ridiculed by various philosophical schools, later its elements were used by Neoplatonism to create their own systematized cosmology. Orphic teachings fell into decay in antiquity, leaving behind a very small amount of evidence. A number of scientists raised the question of the influence of Orphism on Christianity.
Eleusinian mysteries.
The Eleusinian Mysteries are initiation rites in the cults of the fertility goddesses Demeter and Persephone, which were held annually in Eleusis (near Athens) in Ancient Greece.
Of all the rites of antiquity, the Eleusinian mysteries were considered the most important. Beliefs, rites, cult actions were kept secret from the uninitiated, and initiation united a person with God, up to immortality and the possession of divine power in the other world.
The origin of the mysteries can be attributed to the Mycenaean era (1500 BC). They have been celebrated annually for two thousand years.
Eleusis - a small city 22 km northwest of Athens, connected with them by a sacred road; has long been famous for the production of wheat.
The Mysteries were based on the myths of Demeter. Her daughter Persephone was kidnapped by Hades, god of the underworld. Demeter, who is the goddess of life and fertility, after the abduction of her daughter, set off in search. Having learned from Helios about her fate, Demeter retired to Eleusis and swore an oath that until her daughter was returned to her, not a single sprout would break out of the earth.
Worried about the crop failure, Zeus ordered Hades to return Persephone. After the return of her daughter, Demeter allowed the earth to flourish and, in joy, revealed her sacred rites and mysteries to King Keley and the princes Triptolemus, Eumolpus and Diocles.
But since Hades gave Persephone a pomegranate seed to eat before leaving the underworld so that she would return to him, Demeter's daughter could not stay with her mother for a long time. The gods came to an agreement that Persephone would live in the Upper World for two-thirds of the year, and devote the rest of the time to the Underground Lord.
The Eleusinian mysteries reproduced the return of Persephone from the Underworld, just as seeds thrown into the ground in autumn return every year in spring, being a symbol of the resurrection from the dead. Keley was the first priest of Demeter, initiated into her rites and mysteries, and his son Triptolem, trained by the goddess in the art of growing wheat, opened it to other people throughout the earth.
There were two types of mysteries: Great and Small.
The Lesser Mysteries were celebrated in the anfestirion (February), although the exact date has not been established. Priests cleansed candidates for initiation, sacrificed a pig to Demeter, and cleansed themselves.
The great mysteries took place in the voidromion (September) and lasted nine days. The first act of the Great Mysteries (September 14) consisted in the transfer of sacred objects from Eleusis to Eleusisinion (the temple at the base of the Acropolis in Athens dedicated to Demeter). On September 15, the priests announced the beginning of the rites. The ceremonies began in Athens on September 16, the attendants bathed in the sea at Phaleron (the natural harbor in Athens) and sacrificed the pig at Eleusision on September 17. The sacred procession departed from Keramik (the Athenian cemetery) on September 19 and moved to Eleusis along the so-called "Sacred Road".
AT certain places the participants shouted obscenities in honor of Yamba (an old maid who amused Demeter with her funny jokes when she mourned the loss of her daughter in Eleusis), and also shouted out one of the names of Dionysus, Iacchus (Dionysus was considered the son of Demeter or Persephone).
The arrival in Eleusis was celebrated with a fast in memory of Demeter's grief when she grieved for her daughter. The fast was interrupted by an infusion of barley and mint (kykeon), which Demeter drank in the house of King Celeus instead of red wine.
On the 20th and 21st of September, the priests entered the great hall of the Telesterion (a temple in honor of Demeter), where they beheld the sacred relics. This part of the mysteries was the most hidden from the uninitiated; it was forbidden to tell outsiders about it under pain of death.
There are several views concerning the essence of the mysteries. Some argue that the initiates, by contemplating sacred objects, were convinced of the existence of life after death. Others say that this is not enough to explain the influence and longevity of the mysteries, arguing that in addition to external contemplation, initiates may have been under the influence of psychotropic drugs.
This hidden part was followed by a feast that lasted all night and was accompanied by dancing and entertainment. The dances took place in the field, where, according to legend, the first sprout broke through. They also sacrificed a bull.
On September 22, the initiates honored the dead by overturning special vessels. The Mysteries ended on September 23rd.
At the center of the Telesterion was the Anactoron ("palace"), a small stone structure that only the priests could enter and kept sacred objects.
Most of the rites have never been recorded in writing, and therefore much of these mysteries remains the subject of speculation and conjecture.
During the time of Peisistratus of Athens, the Eleusinian mysteries acquired great importance, and pilgrims came from all over Greece to participate in them. Starting from 300 BC. e. control over the conduct of the mysteries was taken by representatives of the two families of Eumolpides and Kirikos.
A prerequisite for admission to the mysteries was non-participation in the murder and possession Greek(don't be a barbarian). Women and some slaves were allowed to participate.
The Roman emperor Theodosius I the Great closed the sanctuary by decree of 392, in the interests of fighting paganism and strengthening Christianity.
The last traces of the mysteries were destroyed in 396 during the invasion of the Goth king Alaric I into Byzantium.
Myths about Prometheus.
Prometheus - in ancient Greek mythology titan, the king of the Scythians, the protector of people from the arbitrariness of the gods. Son of Iapetus and Clymene. His wife Hesiona.
According to Hesiod, Prometheus fashioned people from the earth, and Athena endowed them with breath; or he revived the people created by Deucalion and Pyrrha from stones. Near Panopia (Phocis) in ancient times there was a statue of Prometheus, and next to it were two large stones left from the clay from which people were fashioned.
When the gods and men bickered at Mekon, Prometheus deceived Zeus by offering him a choice, and he chose a larger but worse part of the victim. So Prometheus changed the order of sacrifices to the gods, earlier the whole animal was burned, and now only the bones. Prometheus killed the bull first. People set to burn the liver of sacrificial animals on the altars, so that the gods would enjoy their liver instead of Prometheus.
According to the oldest version of the myth, Prometheus stole the fire from Hephaestus, took it from Olympus and handed it over to people. He ascended to heaven with the help of Athena and raised the torch to the sun. He gave people fire, hiding it in a hollow stalk of a reed, and showed people how to keep it, sprinkling it with ashes.
There were 4 types of primitive religions in ancient times:
- Fetishism
— Totemism
- Animism
Fetishism- one of the forms of beliefs associated with the veneration of fetishes (objects endowed with magical properties). The main feature: attribution to the inanimate is alive. Fetish could be
any object (extraordinary stone, animal tooth, piece of wood, etc.).
Later, specially made figurines made of stone, bone, wood, and metal appeared. Some peoples had a custom to thank, and sometimes punish fetishes.
Many fetishes in the form of amulets have survived to this day. An amulet is an object to which magical properties avert misfortune from a person and bring good luck.
The ability to turn away from trouble was also attributed to talismans. However, the amulet was usually worn openly around the neck, and the talisman was hidden.
totemism- this is a belief in the existence of a family relationship between a group of people (tribe, clan) and a certain animal, plant or other natural phenomena.
The totem is considered the ancestor of the social group, and each individual is his blood relative. Many tribes believed that after death, each person turns into
the animal of your totem.
Totemic representations determine certain relationships between people. They divide all people into “us” and “them”.
Emile Durkheim wrote: “Totemism is not a belief in some animals, but in some invisible force that lives in each of these creatures. This force is independent, it is embodied in certain
subjects, precedes their appearance and lives after them.
Animism is a system of ancient religious beliefs associated with the existence of souls and spirits. This term was first introduced by E. Taylor in his work "Primitive Culture".
The essence of animism is the recognition of an independent force or beings capable of joining and leaving humans, animals and plants.
An early form of animism is the belief in spirits. This is a certain world, which is due to the interpretation of a person of optical and acoustic phenomena. Spirits have the ability to be elusive,
take the form of any object, tree, stone. The spirit world is the invisible world.
The highest form of development of animism is the belief in the independent existence of the soul. The functions of life are controlled by special beings (souls). These souls can be of different nature. This soul can
to move into other people and animals, into plants, objects. Over time, the soul appears as a spiritual substance - a double of a person.
Magic- one of the oldest forms of existence of religion. These are representations and rituals based on the belief in the possibility of influencing people, objects and phenomena of the visible
world, in a supernatural way.
In many nations, magicians acted as community leaders. The idea of a special, inherited witchcraft power is associated with them. Magic included special rituals for successful hunting, fertility, etc. Magicians could communicate with the spirit world.
Fetishism. One of these forms is fetishism - the belief in special power any items (from Portuguese fetiso - "amulet"). When fetishism manifests itself in the belief in the special power of amulets, charms, we are talking about magic. If a person creates an idol and uses it as a material object for worship higher powers It's about religion. An idol is needed as a material object to which sacrifices can be made. An idol is a channel for communication with a higher power, endowed with consciousness, a soul (otherwise you cannot make contact with it), and this manifests the connection between fetishism and animism.
Totemism. Primitive people are characterized by a belief in a special relationship between a group of people (genus, tribe) and a certain natural object (most often - an animal, less often - a plant, another object), which was considered as a symbol, progenitor and patron of this community. Such an object is called a "totem". The term is borrowed from the language of the American Indian tribe Ojibwa, and literally means "his kind."
The totem is also endowed with consciousness, a soul, and in this its connection with animism is manifested. If the totem is worshiped, endowed with powerful powers and abilities, then we are dealing with a form of religion. However, often totems were used only to help people separate members of their clan from other people. In such cases, totemism is a form of demographic magic. Totemism is often associated with fetishism. The Indians of North America created colorful totem poles that played the role of idols.
The cult of ancestors. The study of traditional beliefs of peoples East Asia and West Africa shows the great role of the cult of ancestors, which also has very ancient roots. The cult grew out of the tradition of gaining accumulated experience from the hands of the oldest members of the community. In the primitive era, people rarely lived to old age. But if someone survived, he knew a lot and was a source of valuable information. People believed that ancestors, at least the most prominent, authoritative during their lifetime, help their descendants even after death. Ancestor worship is also a form of animism, because it is based on the belief in the existence of ancestral spirits. Sometimes, but not often, the ancestors were deified, and then the ancestor cult became a form of religion. More often, ancestors played the role of intermediaries between living people and higher forces, and in this form they were part of other religious beliefs.
Shamanism. In a broad sense, shamans are people who professionally practice magic or perform religious cults among a number of backward peoples of the world. In a narrow sense, shamanism is a form of animism in a number of regions of North Asia and America. This form assumes the presence of an invisible world with which a shaman-medium is able to communicate, being in a special state (trance).
Rites. As the ethnographic material shows, the process of reaching an agreement with the spirits consisted mainly of the rite of sacrifice. In other words, the basic principle of all early religious systems can be expressed by the phrase: "I give you so that you give me." The rites of sacrifice could be very simple and complex.
From spirit to God. A very difficult question is when belief in spirits developed into belief in a god or gods, which in the era of ancient civilizations were already conceived in a well-defined anthropomorphic or zoomorphic form. It can be assumed that as some important natural element received a specific appearance and endowed with specific functions, the process of transforming the spirit into a god took place. The simultaneous veneration of many spirits, personifying a number of important natural phenomena, laid the roots for polytheism - belief in many gods. It is possible that in the primitive era there were also roots for monotheism. The study of the beliefs of the peoples of Polynesia has shown that they have long had the idea of a certain single force that animates all nature and activates everything that is in nature, and which can partially be embodied in individual spirits, animals and humans. However, it is not possible to determine how long such ideas have existed, at what stage of human development they arose.
