Historically, the earliest form of worldview is. The first historical forms of worldview Historically, the latest form of worldview is
Foreword
This publication, written in accordance with the official educational standards in Philosophy for Higher Education, sets as its main task to acquaint students, graduate students, as well as a wide range of readers interested in philosophy, with modern philosophical problems and encourage them to develop their own philosophical position. The authors sought to show different approaches to solving the most important philosophical problems and set the task of helping students, on the basis of knowledge of historical and philosophical material, acquire the ability to think independently and independently judge complex and vital things, based on the achievements of modern science and philosophy.
Philosophical problems are among the "eternal". They were placed throughout the history of this subject, and each point of view introduced new semantic shades into their understanding. Therefore, the study of philosophy presupposes not only the assimilation of some ready-made results, but also the clarification of how the thinkers of the past went to obtain them. ; What people experienced in certain periods of life, what was their way of thinking, beliefs and ideals, what knowledge they had - all this was reflected in philosophical problems, in the very types of philosophizing. But a change in philosophical approaches never required a rejection of the development that had been achieved. Alternative concepts of the past and present, mutually complementing each other, enrich the spiritual, moral and intellectual potential of mankind. Therefore, the study of philosophy is inevitably associated with an appeal to its history, to the concepts of the past.
At the same time, the study of philosophical topics presupposes knowledge of the concepts and categories corresponding to them, which present a certain complexity. The authors have tried to give short definition many of them either in the text or in concise dictionary at the end of the book. However, mastering the content of philosophical concepts is a necessary but insufficient condition. In order to master philosophical culture, it is necessary to learn the art of operating with its categories. And this, in turn, is due to the general culture of a person, his erudition, familiarity with the history of world culture.
Philosophy has always played a special role in the formation and formation of a person's worldview. Therefore, the problem of being has been one of the most important since ancient times. It would be unjustified to think that this extremely broad abstract concept has nothing to do with the world of everyday life, with the anxieties and concerns of each of us. In fact, the problem of being is to a large extent a question about human being, about the meaning of his life. The main function of philosophy is the orientation of a person in the world of nature, society. Each person at certain moments of his life is faced with the need to choose and thereby exercise his freedom. Philosophy is designed to help him make the right choice. To solve this problem, philosophy turns to the world of values, creates theories of values. It gives a scale for assessing phenomena, establishes a hierarchy of values and promotes their reassessment in a changing world.
Another fundamental problem of philosophy is the ways of development of civilization, the orientation of the cultural and historical process. The acuteness of this topic today is connected with the danger of a global ecological crisis, with the persistence of armed conflicts on the planet, with the collapse of totalitarian ideologies, as well as with the processes of integration of cultures. Finding alternative paths community development is one of the most important tasks of philosophy.
The authors of the manual are aware of the complexity of the task ahead of them and do not pretend to the absolute correctness and unconditional truth of the proposed solutions where they express their own position. Outlining their views and ideas on various issues, they sought to compare them with other points of view, bearing in mind that in modern science, which has accumulated a huge amount of knowledge, and even more so in philosophy, the most established, tested material. After all, even a scientist, a philosopher, in solving professional problems, usually uses the experience and achievements of other researchers, adhering, as a rule, to the prevailing theories. This also applies to the authors of this manual, who, in formulating their own views on various topics, relied on authorities and widely known provisions, although they admit that not all of them may ultimately stand the test of time. The main thing they aspired to was to encourage students of philosophy to think about what had already entered the treasury. philosophical thought, reflect on what still remains relevant and urgently requires its decision and, having refracted it through your consciousness, put it in the basis of your own worldview. There is no doubt that such an orientation of consciousness is an integral part of the worldview position of any educated person, especially one who has graduated from a higher educational institution. Chapters 1,2,4,5,9 were written by Doctor of Philosophy, Professor A.N. Chumakov, chapters 3, 6, 7, 8 - Doctor of Philosophy, Professor N.F. Buchilo.
At the end of the book is a Dictionary of Philosophical Terms.
Philosophy: its subject and role in society
Philosophy in the first approximation
Almost every person who starts studying philosophy for the first time, one way or another, already knows something or at least heard about it, since even in everyday life people often come across this famous, attractively bewitching concept. There are also many who, thanks to the school curriculum or their curiosity, managed to get acquainted with textbooks and other literature on philosophy, and even with the works of great philosophers, whose influence left a deep mark on the cultural heritage of almost any nation.
Nevertheless, it is not so easy on your own, without special studies, to get a fairly clear idea of what philosophy is, what it does, and what problems it solves. Even among those who work professionally in the field of philosophy, there is no unity in the answers to the questions posed. Some consider philosophy a science, others consider it a game of the mind, others, disagreeing with this, give different definitions, focusing on various forms of people's worldview, the state of their soul, intellect, personal experience, etc. Someone sees in it a goal, someone sees it as a means, a way of rational, irrational, and even intuitive comprehension by a person of himself and the world around him.
At the same time, everyone builds his own logic of reasoning, depending on how he answers a number of fundamental questions: when and why did philosophy arise? What is the nature of philosophical knowledge and is it possible, relying only on the human mind, to know the world? This partly contains the answer to the question why, over the two and a half thousand years of its existence, philosophy has not given unambiguous, indisputable answers to many vital questions, has not found final, indisputable solutions to the so-called "eternal philosophical problems", such as, for example, : what is a person? Is there a God? What is matter, consciousness? How do they relate to each other? How to understand the truth and what are its criteria? What is a soul? And what do they mean: freedom, equality, justice, hatred, love?
And yet, despite the lack of an established, generally accepted definition of philosophy, as well as a wide variety of points of view and approaches to understanding its subject matter, essence, goals and objectives, it has, for all that, invariably - at all times and in all countries - been and remains one of the most fundamental subjects, which is mandatory for study at all universities and other higher educational institutions. Why? Where is the logic here? And to the above, let's add the fact that philosophy does not have a single, generally accepted language, indisputably established laws and a certain set of categories that are generally significant for any philosophical teachings. Moreover, in principle, it does not seek to build a unified system of knowledge and, ultimately, is not aimed at obtaining accurate results at all, as is, for example, typical of science.
Why, then, has such unflagging attention been paid to philosophy throughout the centuries-old history of its existence? It may seem that we are dealing with an inexplicable paradox. But the apparent contradiction is overcome as they delve into the essence of this subject, delve into its specifics and begin to understand the role philosophy plays in a person's awareness of himself and the world around him. Much can be clarified already in this introductory chapter, but a holistic vision of philosophy, a deeper and more complete understanding of the issues raised will come only as you get acquainted with the contents of this book and immerse yourself in philosophical problems, in the mysterious and fascinating world of philosophy - wisdom.
What is philosophy?
The content of any unknown word is best to start with its etymology, i.e. with finding out when, how and why it arose. The concept of "philosophy" comes from the Greek. “рһіісо” - I love and “§о£з” - wisdom, so that the original meaning of this term can be interpreted as love for wisdom, wisdom. For the first time this word was used in the VI century. BC e. the famous ancient Greek thinker Pythagoras, wishing to make a fundamental difference between the knowledge that was passed down from generation to generation in finished form (through myths, legends, traditions) and that which could be obtained by oneself, relying on one's own mind, through reasoning and critical reflection reality.
Both Pythagoras and other philosophers of antiquity initially invested in the concept of "philosophy" a slightly different meaning, in contrast to the one that was assigned to it in later times and essentially boiled down to the fact that philosophy is "the queen of all sciences." They did not consider themselves sages and did not claim to possess wisdom, for true wisdom, as it was customary then to think, consisted in myths, religion, traditions, coming from ancient times, from ancestors, from centuries. And the bearers of wisdom, centuries of proven knowledge, truths in the last instance were considered soothsayers, priests, elders - recognized and indisputable authorities, "true sages", whose words were not subject to doubt and were unconditionally taken for granted. The philosopher, however, had to be only a seeker, a lover of wisdom, to strive for them, relying not on authorities, but on his own mind, using knowledge and experience obtained, including by others in a creative way.
Pre-philosophy - its subject and role in society
Such an attitude to the world and to man himself arose far from immediately. Mankind has passed a long and difficult path before its ability to resist nature, create and increase the means of subsistence developed and increased, as a result of which sufficient experience and knowledge were accumulated, and the mind of people became so strong that it became self-sufficient in order to look for answers to numerous questions in itself.
Essence of the question. To understand the essence of philosophy, as well as the reasons and conditions for its appearance, the conversation should begin with a person's worldview. Why? Because, as will be shown below, philosophy is one of the main forms of worldview, and precisely the form based on the rational principle. To talk about philosophy means to talk about the worldview of a person, and, consequently, about his essence and history of appearance on Earth. And here we are faced with complex, still poorly understood problems, because the origin of man is one of those great mysteries that people have always tried to unravel. But even today in this field of knowledge there are many unresolved problems, just as there is still no unambiguous, generally accepted answer to the question: why, where, for what reasons, can one say so - for what purposes - did a person appear?
Background. Scientific, as well as other approaches to understanding this problem, we will consider in detail later - in the relevant chapters of this book. Now, let us note that from the point of view of modern scientific ideas about human history, there are still a number of issues regarding which scientists and specialists have a certain clarity. In particular, based on rich historical material, factual data obtained by archeology, and also taking into account the results obtained by the methods of other sciences (for example, determining the age of rocks, fossils, etc.), it can be argued with a high degree of certainty that a person is the result of the evolutionary development of life on our planet. The available knowledge allows us to conclude that the oldest settlements of humanoid creatures who made elementary tools of labor (homo habshz - a skilled man) appeared about 3-5 million years ago.
The age of Homo erectus, according to archaeological and scientific data, is about 1.5 million years. And only 40-60 thousand years ago there was a type of people who received the name hoto dawn, which means a reasonable person. Since man gained reason and finally formed as a social being, he, according to experts, has not undergone significant changes in his main characteristics, i.e. fundamentally different from modern people.
The appearance of the mind, in accordance with modern scientific ideas, corresponds to that period of the historical development of man, when his brain, thanks to ever-increasing labor activity and verbal (speech) communication, developed to such an extent that complex abstractions became available to him. Man, thus, began to carry out albeit still primitive, but already in the full sense of the word, intellectual work, formulating concepts, expressing judgments and building conclusions.
The man and his
worldview to talk about the formation of a sufficiently developed
worldview of a person and about the worldview of people
in general - as a set of accumulated knowledge, practical skills, established values.
Such a worldview, formed on the basis of life experience and empirical knowledge, is called ordinary or empirical and initially acts as a kind of undifferentiated, unsystematic set of human ideas about the world. It forms the basis of any worldview and performs an important regulatory function, orienting people in their Everyday life and activities, predetermining the behavior and a significant part of their actions.
If we give the bolsa a complete, detailed definition, then a worldview is a system of views on the objective world and a person’s place in it, on a person’s attitude to the surrounding duality and to himself, as well as the basic principles conditioned by these views. life positions people, their beliefs, ideals, principles of cognition and activity, value orientations.
A worldview defined in this way is inherent only to a person and is associated with the presence of a well-formed consciousness and rational activity in him, when he not only acquires the ability to form concepts and judgments, make generalizations and formulate rules, but also begins to operate with ready-made knowledge in order to obtain new knowledge. Reason, which characterizes such human activity, his creative activity, becomes a powerful means of accelerating the evolution of both himself and society and, as a result, acts as the main difference between people and animals.
With the advent of the mind, a person begins to realize himself as a thinking being, he forms and develops an idea of his own "I" and "NOT-I", "WE" and "NOT-WE". Thus, he cognizes himself and the reality around him, begins to distinguish between himself and Other people, between himself and the external environment, discovering more and more new aspects of the previously unknown world. Such views form the basis of the worldview, which is formed as a set of views of a person on himself and the reality surrounding him. At the same time, a person distinguishes between what he likes and dislikes, gives assessments, builds a system of priorities and acts accordingly, achieving certain goals.
In the worldview, therefore, in a generalized form, the following main functions performed by a person are presented: cognitive, value, behavioral.
At the same time, the cognitive one is the most important, since it includes all the questions that arouse the interest of a person, as well as the answers to which he comes in one way or another. Knowledge enriches and expands the worldview of people, which, as society develops, becomes deeper and richer in content.
But the world is infinitely varied and in constant change, and there are undoubtedly more questions that do not have satisfactory answers than those that could be given one and only one answer to the exclusion of all others. Hence the worldview of every person who selectively reacts to problems, questions, answers, always differs in personal originality and, if only for this reason, it never resembles the worldview of other people. It is always unique and unrepeatable also because in the worldview, along with the intellectual principle, emotional and mental are inextricably linked, which for each person act as absolutely specific, individual characteristics.
Intellectual, emotional and mental, in combination with the will, give rise to beliefs - views that are actively accepted by people, corresponding to the whole structure of their consciousness, life aspirations.
Another important element of any worldview is doubt, which protects it from dogmatism - such thinking when it becomes one-sided, uncritical, accepting this or that position as an immutable truth, unchanged under all circumstances. Another extreme in relation to dogmatism is skepticism, in which doubt is absolutized, put at the forefront and acts as the main principle of cognition and perception of reality. So, as can be seen from the foregoing, a person's worldview is a rather complex phenomenon, in which it is customary to single out the individual elements that make up its structure. The most important of them are attitude, world perception and world outlook.
Attitude is a sensory perception of the surrounding world, when feelings, mood, as it were, “color” the world, capture its image through the prism of subjective, purely individual sensations. For example, a light that may seem too bright for a sick person will be normal for a healthy person; The color gamut is perceived by a color-blind person in a completely different way than by those who have normal vision. Different types of attitudes follow from this, such as optimistic, pessimistic, tragic, etc.
Perception of the world is a representation of the surrounding world in ideal images. The perception of the world can be adequate or inadequate, that is, not correspond to reality, when reality is distorted or there are illusions, fantasies, such as ideas about rusals, goblin, centaurs, brownies, etc.
Understanding the world is a cognitive and intellectual activity aimed at revealing the essence of both the person himself and the world around him, as well as understanding the relationship between events and processes occurring in nature.
Attitude and, partly (in elementary forms), perception of the world are inherent not only to man, but also to animals. But the understanding of the world is peculiar only to people.
The first historical forms of worldview
Different epochs deepened the knowledge and broadened the horizons of a person, opening up new horizons of his vision of both the world and himself in it. Thus, the ordinary (empirical) worldview increased, grew, enriched, on the basis of which, as if crystallizing out of it, more and more complex structures gradually formed, which ultimately led to the separation of separate Forms in it, sometimes they say - historical types of worldview.
The most important of them are: MYTH RELIGION PHILOSOPHY SCIENCE.
Historically, the first forms of worldview were myth and religion, which preceded philosophy and science, which is quite consistent with the general logic of the evolutionary development of mankind. So, as skills, experience and elementary knowledge were accumulated, not only did the problem of passing them on from generation to generation arise, but the worldview itself became more and more complicated. primitive people. At a certain stage of its development, upon reaching a "critical mass" of accumulated knowledge, in it, as in any other rather complex system, the action of the laws of self-organization began to manifest itself.
The essence of this phenomenon can be better understood if we turn to the example of the accumulation of books in the home library. When there are several of them, no systematization is required, and it does not matter where they lie and in what relation to each other they are. When the score goes to dozens, for more convenient and efficient use, they need to be somehow arranged and systematized. And the more books there are, the more complex the system of classification, ordering, heading should be, so that it is easier and less expensive to work with them.
It is this orderliness according to the laws of self-organization that arose in the sufficiently developed worldview of primitive people in the beginning in the form of a myth and primitive forms of religions.
Mythology The concept of "myth" comes from the Greek word tyuz, which means narration, legend. If we do not go into the features of the modern mythologization of consciousness, but confine ourselves to a simple definition that conveys the original meaning of this word, then we can say that the MYTH is an ordered, systematized worldview in a certain way that conveys the idea different peoples about the origin of the world, about natural phenomena, about fantastic creatures, about the deeds of gods and heroes.
The myth initially united the rudiments of knowledge, religious beliefs, various elements of spiritual culture, art, social life and, thus, some order was given to the worldview of primitive people, and their views of the world formed into a certain system. The most important forms of this systematization are: epic, fairy tales, legends, traditions, through which, first of all, myths are transmitted. This also ensures the consolidation of the accumulated knowledge and experience in subsequent generations.
The specificity of mythological thinking lies in the fact that it is not just a narrative, telling a story, but empathy, the perception by the archaic consciousness of an oral "sacred" text as a kind of reality that influences the course of events, a person and the world in which he lives. . Myth, especially in the early stages of human history, performed the most important function of regulating the behavior and relationships of people, since customs were fixed in it, both moral views and the aesthetic attitude of a person to reality were expressed. Mythology is characterized by the fact that everything in it is merged, united, inseparable; objects and phenomena of nature live according to the same laws as a person, have the same sensations, desires, suffering, etc. as he does.
Thus, a myth is not someone’s invention or a “relic of the past”, but a specific language with which a person has described the world since ancient times, generalizing, interpreting, classifying and bringing his scattered and growing knowledge into a certain system.
In myth leading role tradition plays, an authoritative word coming from the lips of a father, a leader, an elder... The attitude to such a narrative and its content is based on faith, on a direct, emotional perception of reality. The mythological worldview is a holistic worldview in which there is no room for doubt.
Mythology (as a set of myths) is closely connected with the worldview of not only ancient people. And today, the myths that live in ordinary consciousness, visibly or veiledly present in religion, philosophy, politics, art, remain (for some - to a greater extent, for others - to a lesser extent) integral part worldview of any person, playing an active role in the life and work of people. In the context of the rapidly growing informatization of society, myth through television, radio, periodicals, modern electoral technologies is often used as a means of manipulating public consciousness, forming a predetermined public opinion, etc.
Religion. Another form of worldview that historically preceded philosophy is RELIGION. This word comes from the Latin ge!і§іo, which means piety, piety, shrine. Like myth, religion also has faith, feelings, and emotions at its core. And although the rudiments of it are found already at the very early stages of the formation of the worldview of a “reasonable person”, i.e. about 40-60 thousand years ago, on the whole, it takes shape as an independent form of worldview a little later, when, thanks to myth as well, a person's ability to think abstractly is noticeably enhanced.
Religion can be defined as a worldview and attitude, as well as the corresponding behavior and specific actions of people, which are based on belief in the supernatural (gods, " higher intelligence”, a certain absolute, etc.).
Religion is complex spiritual education and a socio-historical phenomenon, where faith is invariably put in the first place and is always valued above knowledge! Compared to myth, religion performs a more complex set of functions, including:
Worldview, answering the questions: how, when and why everything that exists, and how the primary role of supernatural power was manifested in this;
Communicative, providing a certain type of communication and interpersonal relationships, contributing to the solidarity and integrity of society;
Regulatory, establishing appropriate norms and rules that regulate the behavior of people.
Compensatory, compensating for the lack of information, attention, care, replacing the lack of meaning in life, perspective, etc., i.e. fulfilling the needs of a person unsatisfied in everyday life.
Religion arose as a natural phenomenon and has its own deep roots, as if nourishing a person's faith in the supernatural. These roots lie primarily in human nature, in the psychology of people, where, regardless of the level of development of the intellect and the ability of a person to think critically, there is always a desire and even a need not only to understand, to realize, but simply to believe.
Substantial recharge religious views receive in the field of knowledge. Here lie the so-called epistemological roots of religion. From the point of view of rational knowledge, the world in its diversity appears to man as infinitely complex and opens up to his knowledge only fragmentarily. For this reason, he is full of mysteries and miracles for him, which a person is not able to solve (perhaps yet?), just as he fails, relying only on reason, neither to prove nor disprove, and much of what is recognized on faith. As psychologists note, “an extremely difficult task is stupefying”, a person feels weak, helpless in the face of insoluble problems and easily supplements, or even replaces the arguments of the mind with fiction, an appeal to the supernatural.
Causes of religiosity
sphere, because in society there has always been inequality, poverty and lack of rights, they could not change or overcome with all their desire. The feeling of injustice and imperfection of the earthly world gives rise to a feeling of hopelessness and despair, which easily develops into faith in afterlife where, as any religion teaches, everything is arranged in the best way and everyone is rewarded according to his deeds. Faced with problems, difficulties and not finding support in real life, a person turns to the other world, placing hopes on supernatural forces. Having believed in them, he finds consolation and ultimately comes to humility and submission to fate.
Finally, an essential and unchanging connection is found between religion and politics. Various political forces, as a rule, do not miss the opportunity to use religion for their own mercenary purposes and, thus, directly or indirectly support it, strengthen its role and influence in society. These reasons for the vitality of religion are so solid that even the impressive achievements of modern science have not shaken the foundations of religion, and the growth of scientific knowledge practically does not change the percentage of believers and non-believers, even among scientists. So, in 1916, when the rapidly developing natural science seemed to promise a person unlimited possibilities in understanding the world, the American researcher James Lyuba published very interesting results of his research, according to which 40% of US scientists believed in God. Even more sensational were the results of a new study conducted in the late 90s. American historians E. Larson and L. Witham, who decided to find out how much the worldview of scientists has changed under the influence of the greatest discoveries and scientific achievements made in the 20th century. A survey they conducted among a thousand randomly selected humanities and natural scientists in the United States showed that the same 40% of scientists still believe in God and the afterlife. At the same time, the number of unbelievers and agnostics (denying the existence of God) has also changed little since then and today, as before, is approximately 45% and 15%, respectively.
General conclusion about survivability religious outlook regardless of time, countries and continents, the results of a survey conducted by the Public Opinion Foundation in May 2000 in Russia confirm this. Among the Russians, who in the 20th century lived for almost 80 years under conditions of militant atheism, which used all possible arguments to "debunk" religion, 2/3 of the country's population consider themselves believers. 59% of respondents are indifferent to whether the president of Russia believes in God, 31% believe that a believer should be the president, and only a small proportion of Russians (6%) believe that the head Russian state must be an atheist.
The history of mankind knows many different religions. So, in a primitive society, where there was an extremely low level of culture and knowledge, and a person could not resist the elemental forces of nature, which were a formidable, alien and mysterious force for him, early, still very primitive forms of religion arise: fetishism, animism, totemism, magic, etc.
Historical fetishism, for example, endows this or that object with miraculous properties, religious abilities to influence people's lives. Such an object is deified and becomes an object of veneration and worship.
Animism (from Latin apita - soul) cultivates faith in the existence of souls and spirits, as well as in their ability to influence not only the lives of people, but also animals, objects and phenomena of the surrounding world, since from the point of view of animism the whole world is animated.
In totemism, the basis is the belief in the common origin of a group of people with one or another animal, plant, object, declared a totem, i.e. an ancestor who should be worshiped, for he acts as a powerful protector, patron of this kind, provides food, etc.
Magic (from the Greek taoeia - magic) is also one of the forms primitive religion, which is based on the belief that without help natural forces it is possible in some mysterious way, for example, by a set of rituals, specific actions, to influence things, people, animals, and even otherworldly forces - “spirits”, “demons”, etc.
Marked ancient forms religions formed the basis of later religious beliefs and, to one degree or another, were reflected both in polytheism (worship of many gods) and in monotheism (worship of one god). In part, they retain an independent existence at the present time.
About 10 thousand years ago, when man switched to a settled way of life, taking up cattle breeding and farming, the so-called neolethic revolution took place. At this later stage in the development of society, polytheism arises, since the social division of labor, earthly relations of domination and subordination begin to correspond more to beliefs not in spirits and fetishes, but in gods, whom people endowed with specific names and appearances.
The further formation and development of statehood, the emergence of the great cultures of antiquity, the formation of slave-owning relations, the emergence of monarchies and the resulting unity of command, contributed to the fact that in the religious worldview there were tendencies towards one-reverence, the creation of a cult of one god. By singling out a single almighty god from a multitude of gods, people thereby, as it were, brought into some correspondence their ideas about real life, where the earthly king rules, with the other world, where a single and omnipotent god lives. This is how monotheistic religions(from the Greek topo - one and Iheoz - god): Judaism (VII century BC), Buddhism (ҮІ-Ү centuries BC), Christianity (I century), Islam (VII century .).
Man is the most perfect being in the world. He constantly inquires, posing a variety of questions: What is the universe? What is a star? What is love? These questions are many. In the process of searching for answers to them, a person acquires knowledge, experience, begins to think about the world order, about the place of man in it, about the fate of mankind, about life, about death. All this leads to the formation of his worldview.
outlook is a system of generalized views, ideas, assessments that provide a holistic vision of the world and a person's place in it. Term "worldview" was introduced by the German philosopher I.Kant and literally means attribute of human consciousness. Therefore, a worldview is not just a generalized idea of the world, but a form self-awareness person.
Since for a person the whole world turns out to be divided into two parts: into my own "I" and "not I", i.e. world that includes nature, society, culture and relationships between people, then the question about the relation of man to the world and is fundamental question of worldview.
The main issue of worldview indicates that the worldview itself is a complex spiritual phenomenon, which consists of such elements how:
- knowledge is the basis of the worldview. The worldview includes not all knowledge, but vital for a person, which reveal the essence of the relationship between a person and the world;
- beliefs – it is a solid system of beliefs that has been established in the mind of man. Beliefs can change and the reason for this is new knowledge that is constantly being refined and supplemented;
- values It is a positive or negative attitude towards the phenomena of the surrounding world. They embody the special attitude of people to everything around them in accordance with their needs and interests;
- ideals - it is an imaginary model of perfection to be pursued as the ultimate goal. The peculiarity of ideals is to get ahead of the reflection of reality;
- Vera - it is a form and way of perceiving social information, values, ideals of social life, which are not set by practical experience, but are accepted as obvious facts. However, faith is related to doubt. Doubt is an obligatory moment of a meaningful position of any thinking person. The presence of doubt in the worldview of an individual finds expression in the positions: dogmatism - unconditional acceptance of a particular point of view, system of orientations or skepticism - disbelief in anything, rejection of any point of view;
- living standards- these are samples, standards of activity that have developed historically, as certain rules of conduct.
worldview has its own structure , which is based on the physiological and psychological mechanisms and means of cognition of the world characteristic of a person, namely: the mind, feelings, will, etc. Hence, in the structure of the worldview, there are:
- attitude - This is the emotional and psychological level of the worldview. This is surprise, fear, admiration, loneliness, grief, despair;
- worldview - this is an active level of worldview, which includes the experience of forming cognitive ideas about the world;
- understanding of the world - this is a cognitive-intellectual level; it's a system general concepts, judgments and conclusions about the world as a whole and the place of man in it. Worldview can be: 1) mundane i.e. worldly, when based on sensory experience, traditions, faith; 2) theoretical which is based on knowledge of laws, scientific theories and principles. The theoretical worldview is the highest stage in the development of a worldview. It is obvious that mastering it is the main task of the entire process of becoming and improving a person.
Consequently, outlook is the integral integrity of knowledge and values, mind and intuition, intellect and action, critical doubt and conscious conviction. Hence, the world view performs such functions (i.e. work): 1) cognitive and indicative (which is provided by worldview knowledge and assessments); 2) socio-practical (which is based on worldview beliefs and principles of activity).
The outlook is historical. What does it mean? This means that the worldview of a person, society is constantly changing. For example, in different eras there were different types of worldview systems :
1) cosmocentrism in the era of antiquity, where nature and the Hellenic sages of the 7th-6th centuries BC were at the center of the study. sought to recognize the single essence of everything around;
2) theocentrism, characteristic of the Middle Ages of the 5th-15th centuries, where all the basic concepts of medieval thinking were correlated with God;
3) anthropocentrism, characteristic of the Renaissance of the 14th-16th centuries, where a person felt and realized that he was the center of the universe. Such an understanding of the worldview gives rise to the need to single out not only its historical types, but also historical forms.
Historical forms of worldview, which have been formed throughout the history of mankind, there are mythological, religious and philosophical. Let's consider them.
Mythological worldview- this is a universal form of worldview, which is characteristic of the entire primitive society. Its uniqueness lies in the fact that the first worldview of all ethnic groups was mythology. Mythology in Greek means: mifos – legend and logos – doctrine . Mythology tried to explain the world through the transfer to it of the properties and qualities that characterized the person himself, as well as the relationship between people.
Myth, as the first form of worldview, combined the rudiments of knowledge, religious beliefs, and early forms of art. Myth is an undifferentiated form of knowledge, which is called syncretism. For mythological worldview the following peculiarities :
1) fusion of thoughts and actions;
2) the personal "I" and the world were merged into one;
3) the absence of differences between the object and the subject of activity;
4) anthropomorphism - the transfer of human properties to nature;
5) imagery (the world was perceived in images, not in concepts);
6) the main thing was the substantiation of the connection of the individual with the genus.
The mythological worldview is captured in fairy tales, legends, which is typical for all peoples without exception, because they all went through a unique primitive stage of their development of society. With the development and complication of life forms, mythology ceases to satisfy a person and a need arises for a new worldview. That worldview was religion.
Religious worldview- this is a set of ideas, beliefs, beliefs that are based on the supernatural. supernatural- this is something that does not obey the laws of the universe. The essence of the religious worldview is doubling the world: on the real world in which a person lives and the supernatural, which a person perceives on faith. The mode of existence of a religious worldview is Vera. The outward manifestation of faith is cult.Some stand out features of the religious worldview :
1) it is a form of irrational exploration of the world, i.e. what lies beyond the mind (emotions, will, feelings);
2) it is directed to the inner world of a person, to his hopes and anxieties, to the search for a symbol of faith;
3) exists in an ordinary life-everyday form;
There is a religious worldview in the era of the division of labor. Over time, it becomes a worldview of the past, an expression of a person's powerlessness in front of natural and social elemental forces, an individual's separation from reality. It is replaced by a philosophical worldview.
Philosophical worldview This is the highest form of worldview. It begins there and then, where and when a person tries to know the world and find out his place in this world. The term "philosophy" in the 6th century. BC. introduced the famous mathematician and thinker Pythagoras : "Life is like games: Some come to compete, others to trade, and the happiest ones to watch." This term has Greek origin and literally means "love of wisdom" or "maid of wisdom", "slave of sophia" , and in ancient Rus' it was simply called "love of wisdom" . The term philosophy in European culture was fixed by Plato, who believed that philosophers are people who discover the secrets of nature, human life, teach to act and live in harmony with nature and the requirements of life itself. Thus, philosophy is a special kind of knowledge, namely "sophianic" knowledge, which is understood as wisdom. A feature of the philosophical worldview there is that:
1) it is not inherent in the sensual-figurative, as in mythology and religion, but in the abstract-conceptual form of mastering the world;
2) it is a theoretical form of worldview;
3) religion and mythology coincide with the corresponding worldview, and philosophy is the core of the scientific worldview;
4) philosophy in understanding the world is based on scientific knowledge;
5) philosophy seeks to pose and solve the absolute problems of human existence;
6) philosophy explores the cognitive, value, socio-political, moral, aesthetic attitude of man to the world.
As you can see, a philosophical worldview is a theoretically formulated worldview and it tries to solve the main worldview problems through thinking.
Thus, the formation and development of a worldview is a historically successive process. All historical forms of worldview are dialectically identical: the religious worldview grows out of the mythological one and is formed along with it, since mythology acts as its basis; philosophical worldview historically arises on the basis of the mythological and religious and together with them, since it answers the same questions that are posed by myths and religion. It is no coincidence, therefore, that the spiritual life of various periods of human history is to a certain extent characterized by all types of worldview in the possession of one of them. At the same time, the direction of improving the worldview is unambiguous: from the mythological through the religious to the philosophical. In the culture of savagery (primitive society) there is still neither religious nor philosophical, but in the culture of barbarism - philosophical.
The surrounding life forms a daily worldview in people. But if a person evaluates reality based on logic and reason, one should speak of the theoretical.
Among people of a certain nation or class, a social worldview is formed, and an individual is inherent in an individual. Views on the surrounding reality in the minds of people are reflected from two sides: emotional (attitude) and intellectual (). These aspects are manifested in their own way in the existing types of worldview, which are still preserved in a certain way and are reflected in science, culture, everyday views of people, traditions and customs.
The earliest type of worldview
For a very long time, people identified themselves with the outside world, and in order to explain the phenomena occurring around them, myths were formed in the era of primitiveness. The period of the mythological worldview continued for tens of millennia, developing and manifesting itself in various forms. Mythology as a type of worldview existed during the period of formation human society.
With the help of myths in primitive society, they tried to explain the questions of the universe, the origin of man, his life and death. Mythology acted as a universal form of consciousness, which combined the initial knowledge, culture, views and beliefs. People animated the occurring natural phenomena, considered their own activity as a way of manifestation of the forces of nature. In the primitive era, people thought that the nature of existing things had a common genetic beginning, and the human community came from one ancestor.
The ideological consciousness of primitive society is reflected in numerous myths: cosmogonic (interpreting the origin of the world), anthropogonic (indicating the origin of man), meaningful (considering birth and death, the destiny of man and his destiny), eschatological (aimed at prophecy, the future). Many myths explain the emergence of vital cultural goods such as fire, agriculture, crafts. They also answer questions about how social rules were established among people, certain rituals and customs appeared.
Faith based worldview
The religious worldview arose on the faith of a person who plays a major role in life. According to this form of worldview, there is a heavenly, otherworldly, and earthly world. It is based on faith and beliefs, which, as a rule, do not require theoretical evidence and sensory experience.
The mythological worldview marked the beginning of the emergence of religion and culture. Religious worldview gives only an assessment of the surrounding reality and regulates the actions of a person in it. The perception of the world is based solely on faith. The idea of God occupies the main place here: he is the creative principle of everything that exists. In this type of worldview, the spiritual prevails over the physical. From the point of view of the historical development of society, religion played an important role in the formation of new relations between people, contributed to the formation of centralized states under the slave and feudal systems.
Philosophy as a type of worldview
In the process of transition to a class society, a holistic view of man on the surrounding reality took shape. The desire to establish the root cause of all phenomena and things is the main essence of philosophy. Translated from Greek, the word "philosophy" means "love of wisdom", and the ancient Greek sage Pythagoras is considered the founder of the concept. Mathematical, physical, astronomical knowledge gradually accumulated, writing spread. Along with this, there was a desire to reflect, doubt and prove. In the philosophical type of worldview, a person lives and acts in the natural and social world.
The existing ways of understanding and resolving issues, the philosophical worldview is fundamentally different from the previous ones. Reflections on universal laws and problems between man and the world are based in philosophy not on feelings and images, but on reason.
The specific historical conditions of the life of society, the experience and knowledge of people from different eras constituted the sphere of philosophical problems. "Eternal" problems have no right to claim absolute truth in any period of the existence of philosophy. This indicates that at a particular level of development of society, the main philosophical problems"ripen" and are resolved in accordance with the conditions of existence of human society, the level of its development. In each era, "wise men" appear, ready to deliver important philosophical questions and find
Historically, the first form of worldview was mythology. Mythology (from the Greek mythos - legend, legend and logos - word, concept, teaching) is a type of consciousness, a way of understanding the world, characteristic of the early stages of the development of society. Myth is the first attempt of ancient people to explain the world, to raise the most fundamental, key questions in relation to man - the world and to find answers to them. In the spiritual life of primitive people, mythology acted as a universal, integral form of their consciousness, as a holistic worldview that contained the rudiments of knowledge, religious beliefs, political views, various types of arts and philosophy. The myth, as the earliest form of the spiritual culture of mankind, expressed the worldview, worldview and worldview of the people of the era in which it was created, expressed its spirit.
Of course, for the first forms of explaining the world, there was not enough experimental material for generalization, nor strict logic, which is why they were rather naive. In myth, the world is rather not analyzed, but experienced. In it, the understanding of the world is akin to a worldview, based on sensory visual representations. When trying to comprehend the world, the ancient man naturally exceeded his capabilities of the just emerging intellect, while having, moreover, very poor experience, he was forced to speculate in his thinking, to speculate about the incomprehensible and unknown, sometimes building fantastic images.
A characteristic feature of the mythological type of worldview was anthropomorphism- transfer to the world of one's own, human qualities. The world in its various manifestations was perceived as similar human being turned out to be human. Natural things and phenomena, by analogy with man, were considered just as alive, intelligent, capable of communication and feelings. As a result, a person did not feel his discord with nature, rather he felt himself an inseparable whole with it. In his view of the world, the subjective and the objective, the spiritual and the material, the natural and the supernatural organically merged into one, everything turned out to be permeated with some kind of living, reasonable, but mystical fabric, into which man himself was woven. This feature of the mythological perception of the world as an indivisible whole is called syncretism. One could see in it a vague guess about the interconnectedness of the whole world, about its close unity and kinship of the origins of existence.
The originality of the myth was also manifested in the fact that the thought was expressed in specific emotional, artistic, sometimes poetic images. With the help of an artistic and figurative description, attempts were made to answer the question of the emergence and structure of the surrounding world, the origin of the most important forces and phenomena of nature for a person, world harmony, the origin of people, the mystery of the birth and death of a person, and various tests that arise on his life path. A special place was occupied by myths about the cultural achievements of people - making fire, the invention of crafts, agriculture, the origin of customs, rituals, etc.
Despite the limitations of mythological thinking, nevertheless, the development of the worldview of ancient people already then began its process of moving from myth to logos, from fiction and various speculations of thinking to comprehending its actual relationships and patterns. This was due to the fact that people in their life and practice could not fail to notice a certain logic in the processes taking place around them, not to grasp the simplest relationships. Along with this, their generalizing and analytical abilities grew. However, gradually the idea of the most important forces of the world and the most general, simplest patterns led to their abstraction into something independent, with the appearance of the force that "rules" the specific processes of the world. So, the gods in mythology were the simplest expression of the original abstractions driving forces nature and society. The initial generalizations could not yet be so strong as to simultaneously embrace the universal content of the world and at the same time be kept on the basis of real processes. Therefore, the universal became the force that opposes the real world, is taken out of it, decides the fate of the world from outside its limits. Indicative here would be the idea of the Greek "Olympus" as a special heavenly kingdom, where the fate of the whole world was decided.
Such ideas directed the further development of the worldview of ancient people in the direction of religiosity. Religion(from lat. religion- religion, holiness, piety, reverence, conscientiousness, worship, etc.) - a special form of awareness of the world, due to belief in the supernatural, which includes a code moral standards and types of behavior, rituals, cult actions and association of people in organizations (church, religious community).
The religious worldview clearly distinguishes between the supernatural and natural worlds, between the miraculous and the earthly. The center of the supernatural world is the god (gods), which determines all its structures and creates the real world. The religious picture of the world proceeds from the fact that the plane of being that we see is not the only one, but is only a shadow, a reflection of its hidden, deep sides.
Such a worldview is uncritical, where the mind stumbles over difficulties in understanding, it gives way to faith. The supernatural, hidden and deep here is the lot of religious faith, and not logical conclusions and justifications. However, it is possible to believe in this way also in something that is absurd, absurd, and at the same time not have any rational evidence in the basis of this belief. The main disadvantage of such a worldview is that religious faith can be blind, based on speculation and suggestion, which means it can motivate a person to completely meaningless, and sometimes harmful efforts. At the same time, you can find positive aspects in it. Belief in higher spiritual forces that monitor the world order and higher justice prompts a person to spiritual development, moral self-improvement, the fight against their shortcomings and vices. It is able to fill the feeling of the spiritual emptiness of life, help it find meaning, give spiritual and psychological support for a person, clear his mind with pure and bright thoughts, bringing him into a state of peace of mind, harmony, kindness and love. Thus, religious faith acts as a source of energy or spiritual impulse for the believer. Religion, in its best manifestations, encourages a person to break away from the worries of everyday life, awakening lofty feelings in him, directing him to noble thoughts and deeds, inclining him to mutual assistance and mutual support. It consolidates the norms and attitudes of proper behavior in society, indicates moral guidelines for this behavior, which contributes to the harmonization of relations in society. The religious worldview contributes to the unity of people on the basis of spiritual values, moreover, it is able to mobilize society for great achievements and transformations in order to improve life or face the threat of danger.
However, for the material development of society, for deepening the knowledge of the real world, such a worldview cannot be called progressive. In order for religion to play an exclusively positive role, it should not become the dominant form of worldview, but should only be its harmoniously complementary part. religious faith, which can be acceptable, should be based only on faith in bright and progressive ideals, supported by the results of knowledge and social practice.
An important achievement of the religious worldview can be considered a guess about the existing duality of the world, the difference between the world apparent, visible, being, on the one hand, and the real, deep world, essential- with another. However, this conjecture that has arisen has not yet been supported by a sufficient base of experimental data and the rigor of logical justifications, and therefore, was filled with very poor content that does not carry any serious practical significance.
With the developing tendencies of free-thinking, critically inquisitive, creative thinking, society begins to form philosophical type of outlook. It excludes neither elements of mythological nor elements of religious consciousness. However, the dominant features in it are the desire to search for and substantiate truths, logical reasoning, the development of analytical abilities, as well as self-criticism. It is these features that allow a person not to be content with only the superficial logic of the connection of the observed processes, but to penetrate in his knowledge into the deep, essential aspects of the world, capturing its actual interconnections of various levels of depth and universality. Nevertheless, having a high scientific potential, the philosophical worldview has not lost the shortcomings of its predecessors. Conjectures, inventions, illusions and uncritical faith in convenient, pleasant and beneficial for our thinking, the tendency to take what is wishful thinking, to create comfort for our own way of thinking, to the detriment of understanding the true and objective, and to this day are frequent companions of the modern worldview. At the same time, the modern worldview is largely the result of the achievements of the modern system of upbringing and education, it absorbs knowledge, logic of thinking and wisdom, developed and honed over the centuries, including by the scientific community. Thus, the unlimited potential of the philosophical worldview is used by each of us to the extent of our education, erudition, flexibility and depth of our thinking, commitment to rationalism and the search for objective truth.
Philosophy and life
The importance of philosophy in our life cannot be overestimated. However, in the minds of most modern people philosophy is opposed to life as something abstract, too abstract, divorced from real life problems and concerns. And it is not difficult to understand why this attitude has developed. Indeed, most of the problems that are considered by great philosophers, at first glance, are not relevant in our daily lives. Nevertheless, it was their ideas and reflections that contributed to the progressive development of society, which was accompanied by the creation of more and more comfortable living conditions for an increasing number of strata of society. It is the ideas of Renaissance humanism, the French Enlightenment, modern rationalism and empiricism, etc. led to the formation of that type of modern civilized society without the comfort of which we can no longer imagine our lives. Moreover, the potential of the ideas and reflections of great philosophers is not limited by the achievements of the past, this invaluable experience of human thought will serve as food for the mind and inspiration for many future generations of brilliant personalities who can change our world for the better for a long time to come.
Philosophy has many faces, it is not limited to truths that contribute to social progress, and also affects aspects of personal existence, including those that will be eternally relevant. However, the problems of the individual are such as the relationships within society are built, and any relationship is a product of the activity and thinking of the people themselves. Therefore, the degree of solving the problems of educating a person, his moral improvement and spiritual growth, the eradication of egoism and selfish orientations will forever serve as an indicator of harmony within society, and hence, ultimately, the quality of life in it. The more spiritually developed and morally perfect the majority of people in society are, the more they ennoble relations in it and the easier it becomes for everyone to fulfill themselves, reveal their talents and abilities for the benefit of the whole society, improving its quality of life. These topics are deeply disclosed in the works of Eastern sages (Confucius, Lao Tzu, Osho Rajanish), Russian thinkers (L.N. Tolstoy, N.A. Berdyaev, V.S. Solovyov, etc.), in Marxism, in works of I. Kant, James Redfield and others.
But the role of philosophy in our life is not limited to this either. Philosophy is not only the wisdom of the great thinkers of the past and research in the field scientific philosophy Philosophy is also a way of thinking, a worldview of a modern educated person. Any person with a quality education and sufficient life experience is just as capable of philosophical thinking. We all enjoy the fruits of the development of philosophical thought. In our life, we, without suspecting it, use concepts and judgments, turns of thought that reflect the knowledge that was formed and honed through centuries of philosophical reflection reality. We are born and brought up with a given, ready-made language field (speech structures) and it seems to us that it has always been like this with everyone, that from century to century human speech has remained more or less unchanged, just as adapted to communication and explanation of deep meanings, as now. But it is not. In order to achieve such a sufficiently perfect language, with the help of which we are now able to express the most subtle shades of meaning, humanity has gone through a very complex, contradictory process of its formation. Language is a field for our thinking, everything we think about, we think on the basis of speech structures. Therefore, the quality of our thinking is largely determined by how finely we master modern concepts and judgments, how skillfully we build connections between them. In other words, how much deeper we have absorbed the wisdom of the ages.
Thus, every modern educated person (whether he realizes it or not) has his own philosophy of life, his own philosophical position in life. Everyone strives to comprehend, analyze important situations in their lives, extract valuable experience from them, generalize it, on the basis of which to form certain strategies and principles of behavior. Another thing is that for some it serves as a kind of beacon on their life path, helps them choose the right path, make the right decisions, avoiding possible problems, while for others their philosophical position, their understanding of life, on the contrary, attracts these problems. The thing is that the more rude, straightforward, simplified a person relates to life, the more illusions and prejudices are formed in him, which means that sooner or later these delusions begin to negatively affect his life (through erroneous decisions). Reality begins to "punish" for its misunderstanding, destroy illusions, "lower a person to the ground." However, a more subtle, deeper, wiser attitude to life, as a rule, makes life easier for a person, especially in its second half, when the results of the path that he chose for himself earlier become more and more noticeable, i.e. when it begins to reap the fruits of what was laid down earlier.
Such a sensitive, wise attitude to life has a more direct connection with philosophy in its original sense. Philosophy in a narrow, literal sense is associated with the desire for wise thoughts and actions. It is this form of philosophy that is closest to the actual, everyday problems of the individual. To be wise, first of all, means to understand the laws of nature, history, life, to grasp the deep relationships in them and to coordinate own life with these laws. Closely related to this is another important characteristic of wisdom - foresight. A far-sighted decision proceeds from the most favorable result not only here and now, but also takes into account the prospects for the development of the situation. As Confucius said: “A person who does not look far is sure to face close troubles.” Today's success quickly becomes yesterday's, and future unresolved problems, no matter how much you put them on tomorrow, sooner or later will become real. A wise person is ready to sacrifice today for the sake of long-term favorable prospects. Wisdom is also associated with the ability to find solutions to the most difficult life situations and problems, to find compromises, to avoid extremes, to find the measure, the golden mean in everything. All these abilities are the result of a deep understanding of the laws and relationships of life.
Wisdom is an important indicator of our mind. Many people who specialize only in the development of intellectual skills miss something very important and cannot always be described as smart. You can spend your whole life addicted to various activities that develop intelligence, be it chess, various puzzles, puzzles or crossword puzzles, etc., but this is not the way that is guaranteed to make a person really smart. The mind is more than just intellectual skills. An intelligent person is one who subtly understands and foresees the course of real life events, and intellectual skills do not yet guarantee this, although they are an important condition for this. The mind is also the ability to think wisely, the ability to grasp the very essence, avoiding stereotypes, bias and other kinds of delusions, as well as the ability to draw accurate conclusions. Intellectual skills and wisdom are qualities that complement each other. A person deprived of intellectual abilities is hardly able to understand all the subtleties of the relationships that determine the events of our lives. A rich life experience can make a person wise, but without an intellect capable of anticipating the course of events through deep analysis, this is an experience of trial and error. A person who has gained wisdom by stepping on the same rake many times sometimes can hardly be called a sage. Wise is the one who draws his wisdom no longer from the experience of mistakes, but from a deep understanding of the situation. At the same time, intellect without wisdom is blind, it's like a powerful tool in the hands of an inept person. You can be a skilled chess player, calculating many moves of your opponent in advance, and at the same time be too short-sighted in life, because life is much deeper, more subtle and flexible than the options on the chessboard. Life is always more complicated than the already formed logic, it is always able to surprise logical thinking which must be improved under its influence. We must constantly overcome ourselves, our logic of thinking, in order to avoid stereotypes and prejudices, in order to become truly smart, wise people.
We can say that philosophy as wisdom is the art of knowing the truth, the ability to correctly comprehend and apply one's life experience. In this sense, a philosopher is not a profession, but a degree of personality development that allows one to master this art. For example, some writers, such as L.N. Tolstoy, F.M. Dostoevsky, A.I. Solzhenitsyn, P. Coelho, J. Redfield. Many scientists considered themselves first of all as philosophers and only then as mathematicians, physicists, etc. (G. V. Leibniz, R. Descartes, B. Pascal, F. Bacon, I. Kant). In this sense, one can also single out philosophers-physicians: Hippocrates, Avicenna, Paracelsus.
Comparison of philosophy with art, skill is connected with the fact that in the knowledge of the true and wise, many psychological moments interfere with us: prejudice, stereotypedness, schematism and stereotyped thinking. The wisdom of the great philosophers lies precisely in the fact that they skillfully separate the subjective from the objective, the wheat from the chaff, the flies from the cutlets. It must be borne in mind that the world as we see it is in fact not always the way it seems to us. Each person sees and understands this world differently, from different angles. Everyone receives in their own way a unique flow of knowledge, information, emotions, experience; located in a unique life situation; as a rule, communicates with people of only a certain circle (according to common interests, according to a common vision of the world or attitude towards it); selectively watches programs, films, selects books, magazines and articles on the Internet. Therefore, the information that reaches him and comprehends by him turns out to be to some extent incomplete and one-sided, sometimes even distorted. And this contributes to the formation of many misconceptions and illusions. So, any person lives, as it were, in his own semantic reality, in something different from those realities in which other people live. In these realities, of course, there is much in common (due to common system education, culture, media, general aspects of life), but they never completely coincide, which affects, for example, the difficulties of mutual understanding between people. In fact, any conflict is a clash of those semantic realities that we live by. When these realities largely coincide, there is always ground for understanding, finding compromises, and adjusting one's understanding of life. But when people are too far apart in terms of worldview and worldview, then their semantic realities can violently collide with each other, without finding common ground. Each proceeds from how he sees and understands life, and the behavior of the other, his speech may not fit into the understanding of reality that each of them lives in, their expectations from the other. So, the essence of the conflict is almost always the desire to impose on another one's understanding of reality, that it is his semantic reality, his understanding of life that is more correct. However, it is far from always the case precisely in the difference between understanding the right and the reasonable, sometimes the desires, interests and selfish motives of people collide. A constructive way of solving such problems is connected with the desire to understand the other side, to go beyond the limits of one's own semantic reality in order to be able to stand in its place, look at the contradiction from the side and, thereby, find an objective basis for solving problems.
We often underestimate our tendency to take what is desirable and convenient for reality. The thing is, we tend to think new information, comparing it with what is already known to us, relying on our past experience, building certain associations with its elements. At the same time, we tend to emotionally experience the events that are happening around us. The experience that is deposited in our memory is almost always emotionally colored to one degree or another, and a person is positively disposed to some information, and negatively to some. As a result, as life experience is accumulated, a person develops emotionally significant accents in understanding the world and life. Those. some moments for him become more important or relevant than others, and some of his perceptions are neglected. So, in a whole speech, a text, a person is more focuses attention only on certain phrases, turns of speech and understands the whole speech somewhat differently than the meaning that was invested in it. What does not correspond to his understanding of life or is irrelevant to him (does not correspond to his system of world perception accents), his consciousness, as a rule, ignores or comprehends insufficiently qualitatively, sometimes dismissively. In other words, he develops predilections, prejudices and preferences, he becomes a prisoner of illusions. Therefore, subsequently, judgments, thoughts that a person builds, comprehending the experience gained, often does not accurately reflect reality the relationships that exist within it. In this case, making decisions based on such reasoning, he creates more problems for itself, his reality begins, as it were, to “punish” for its incorrect understanding, “to give life lessons », adjust his mindset .
This feature of perception is often used in politics. For example, in order to discredit a person, his words are taken out of context, as a result, the meaning is distorted, up to the opposite. This psychological feature It is also used under totalitarian regimes to manipulate public consciousness. Through culture, means mass media, education systems, accents beneficial to the regime are placed in the minds of people, and then the judgments built by their associative thinking, linking these accents together, will have a given, initially thought out, beneficial meaning for the regime.
This mechanism of consciousness can be illustrated by the image of a grid or a drawing on a sheet of paper. Our picture of the world is not an absolutely complete and accurate reproduction of reality. We learn the external world in parts, more and more filling our picture of the world with details and nuances. The latter can be compared to dots or knots on a blank sheet of paper. The richer our experience, the more this sheet is dotted with such points, and the more meaningful we live, the more we strive to understand how the world works, to identify the relationships and patterns of life, the more these points are intertwined with patterns. So, in this respect, our perception is like a fishing net: the more experience and knowledge, the fewer cells in the grid (reflecting the interconnections of the world), the fewer gaps, voids, and the more subtle and deep knowledge we are able to perceive. And vice versa, the less meaningful experience, the larger the cells in the network, and therefore, the more potentially useful information can seep through it. In order to master more subtle and deeper knowledge, you must first master the simpler knowledge that underlies it. To study higher mathematics, it is necessary to have basic skills in algebra and geometry. And if we do not have basic knowledge in some area, then there is not that cell, that shelf in the mind, thanks to which it would be possible to streamline, for the purpose of understanding, more complex knowledge in this area. In this case, we are not able to extract useful experience and knowledge from the information received. Our consciousness ignores its importance, tending to form a biased or even negative attitude towards it.
At the same time, if our perception of the world is distorted (the system of accents, the pattern of relationships is incorrect), then we are willing to believe in something that is not true (but corresponds to the system of accents, the pattern of relationships in consciousness), something that potentially can harm us under the influence of delusions. So, the degree of approximation of our drawing to understanding the essence of real events of reality depends on the process of perception of the world and its comprehension. It is important not only to have rich life experience, but also to comprehend it correctly. You can connect the dots, symbolizing the data of our experience, in completely different ways, and the figures that are obtained in the figure depend on this. Those. two people who have received exactly the same experience can comprehend it differently (connect units of experience), which means that their picture of the world will be different. So, great importance has the specifics of ordering, understanding our experience, the ability to capture the real interconnections of the world, life. In this, we are also often hindered by emotional associations, largely under the influence of which we comprehend the information received.
If we have a negative attitude to the source from which the information was received or to this information itself, or we are under the influence of a negative mood, then we perceive such information with caution or even skepticism, in a negative way, with distrust. And vice versa, when we have a positive mood or a positive attitude towards the source, then the perception is also not quite adequate, in speech, text, phrases are snatched out that are associated for themselves in a positive way.
Another important point that affects our perception is our expectations. They influence the formation of the understood meaning, based on them, we make preliminary sketches of the meaning, which affect the subsequent course of our thinking. You must always take into account your own bias, be capable of self-critical, thoughtful analysis.
A wise person is just the one who skillfully avoids his bias, strives to understand the world as it really is, who skillfully places accents in understanding, which means who lives in a semantic reality that is closest to the actual events of life, the world, its actual relationships. Thanks to this, he acquires the ability to often "get out of the water", to avoid immersion in the problems of everyday life. He will almost always see a thread of relationships, clinging to which, you can find a way out of any most difficult, confusing and even extreme situation, but more often he will not allow such a situation itself, bypass it.
Thus, philosophy carries within itself the knowledge that allow a person not to go through life “blindly”, through trial and error, but to be far-sighted, avoid many problems. And in this sense, she is rational core, the foundation of a correct worldview. Philosophy is everything that connects us with life, i.e. gives us not an illusory, but a true understanding of ongoing events, grasps their very essence, all the subtlety of their cause-and-effect relationships. philosophical knowledge, absorbing an understanding of these relationships, helps us navigate the world, correctly place accents and priorities in life, make the right decisions, avoid unnecessary problems, and find the best ways to achieve our goals.
Questions and tasks
1. Explain what attitude, worldview and worldview are. What is their difference?
2. Expand the essence of the relationship of worldview with philosophy.
3. Describe the content of the worldview. What do you think are the most important moments in it?
4. What is the role of ideals for a person?
5. What is the role of beliefs for a person?
6. What role do you think values play in society?
7. What is the peculiarity of the mythological worldview? What are his features?
8. Describe your religious outlook. What are its positive and what are its negative aspects?
9. What is the peculiarity of the philosophical worldview?
10. What is the role of philosophy in the life of the individual and society?
11. What is the reason for the difference in the understanding of the world by different people?
12. Why can our consciousness be compared to a grid?
Conclusion
The modern world is full of problems that challenge the development of human civilization. Many of these problems are related to the neglect of the knowledge and wisdom accumulated over the centuries. A person brought up on the values of the modern era does not even have an impulse to wisdom, to the search for truth, to follow eternal values. Selfishness, selfish thoughts and material, sometimes base values are put at the forefront. This leads to a tense situation in many areas of life, and if the situation is not changed, then in the end it will begin to seriously affect both economic and scientific and technological progress. The debt crisis of developed countries modern world and their international policy, the totality of the corruption component in Russia, are vivid confirmations of this. The loosening of the spiritual foundations of society, the erosion of objective meanings in concepts, the inversion of value orientations and the discrediting of humanistic ideals will certainly affect the decisions that are made in the material sphere of society.
In this regard, a return to the origins of understanding philosophy as wisdom and quality education in this area is a vital step. After all, philosophy in its original understanding develops in a person the discipline of thinking, his versatility, the ability to understand and correctly assess the situation, the desire to be as far-sighted as possible. Philosophy as wisdom encourages a person to self-development, protects him from dangerous stereotypes of life, helps to streamline thoughts in accordance with the understanding of the wise and useful. Philosophical thinking helps to make the complex easier to understand, and at the same time makes the simple and familiar more complex and mysterious, i.e. enlivens the world with colors, makes it more amazing and exciting, awakens sleeping thinking in us, shakes our stereotypes, encourages us to look at the world with different eyes, finding new meanings and shades in it.
Philosophy, instilling a culture of thinking, the ability to penetrate into the essence of things and events, capturing their interconnections, thereby helps to correctly assess the possibilities of both an individual and society as a whole, and also helps to use them correctly. It helps to see those opportunities that could have been missed with an ordinary view of the world, and at the same time to correctly assess how real and feasible these opportunities are, as well as how reasonable it is to follow the path of their implementation. The value of philosophical skills and knowledge cannot be overestimated, because our thinking determines those decisions that ultimately change the outside world.
Literature on the topic "Introduction to Philosophy":
1. Alekseev, P.V., Panin A.V. Philosophy: a textbook. /P.V. Alekseev, A.V. Panin. – M.: Prospekt, 2008. – 608 p.
2. Gubin, V.D. Philosophy: actual problems: tutorial for university students. /V.D. Gubin. - M., 2005. - 288 p.
3. Mamardashvili, M.K. How do I understand philosophy? / M.K. Mamardashvili. - M., 1990. - 368 p.
4. Nagel, T. What does it all mean? Highly brief introduction in philosophy. / T. Nagel. - M: Idea - Press, 2001.
5. Nikiforov, A. L. The nature of philosophy: Fundamentals of philosophy / Nikiforov. - M .: Idea - Press, 2001.
6. Orlov, V.V. Basics general philosophy/ V.V. Orlov. - Perm, Ed. PGU. 2007. - 258 p.
7. Sadovnichiy, V.S. Teaching and Wisdom in a Globalizing World// Questions of Philosophy, 2006. No. 2. P.3-15.
8. Spirkin, A.G. Philosophy / A.G. Spirkin. – M.: Gardariki, 2008. – 735 p.
9. Frolov, I.T. Introduction to Philosophy / I.T. Frolov. - M.: Respublika, 2003. - 623 p.
Basic terms and concepts:
Abstraction (from Latin abstractio - distraction) is the abstraction of essential properties, connections or aspects of reality from less essential ones in relation to the goal of cognition.
Agnosticism (from other Greek agnostos - unknowable, unknown) is a trend in philosophy that denies the cognizability of the objective world, which does not depend on our sensory perception.
Axiology (from other Greek axia - value) - the doctrine of values.
Anthropology (from other Greek. anthropos - man and logos - word, speech) - a set of scientific disciplines that study a person, his origin, development, features of interaction with the outside world.
Anthropomorphism (from other Greek antropos - a person and morphe - a form) is a mental likening of external reality to a person, transferring human qualities and properties to the world or to its separate parts.
Universal - a concept that denotes the totality of all relationships in the world, formed as a result of all interactions and defining laws and patterns of various levels of depth (generalization). It is fundamentally different from the concept of the general as a generalizing feature.
Epistemology (from the Greek gnosis - knowledge, knowledge and logos - word, speech) or another name epistemology (from the Greek episteme - scientific knowledge, science, "reliable knowledge" logos - word, speech) is the doctrine of the ways and possibilities knowledge of the world. Within the framework of the corresponding section in philosophy, the mechanisms by which a person cognizes the world substantiates the very possibility of its cognition.
Determinism (from Latin determinare - to determine, limit) is a doctrine that asserts the universal conditionality, the interdependence of all events in the world, the dependence of each of them on conditions. The scientific principle of determinism is included in the structure scientific method, aiming research at identifying causes and patterns in nature, society or thinking. The opposite doctrine, which admits the existence of absolutely random, unconditioned events, is called indeterminism.
Dialectics (from other Greek dialektike - the art of arguing, reasoning) is a way of thinking that seeks to comprehend an object in its integrity and development, in the unity of its opposite properties and tendencies, in diverse connections with other objects and processes. The original meaning of this concept was associated with a philosophical dialogue, the ability to conduct a discussion, listen to and take into account the opinions of opponents, trying to find the path to the truth.
Dualism (from Latin dualis - dual) - philosophy,
IDEAS AND EVOLUTION OF BUDDHISM
Buddhism: Active world religion, which arose in the VI - V centuries BC. in India. Anchored in the minds of the peoples of Asia and the Far East. Tradition associates the emergence of this religion with the prince Siddhartha Gautalla, called the Buddha (enlightened knowledge). However, in Buddhism there is no idea of God as the creator of the world. The essence of the doctrine: life and suffering are inseparable due to human passions and desires. Getting rid of suffering is connected with the renunciation of earthly passions and desires. After death, a new rebirth occurs, but in the form of another living being, whose life is determined not only by its own behavior, but also by the behavior of those in whom the soul was embodied earlier. A person needs to break out of the cycle of being through nirvana - the highest being, achieved by renouncing earthly passions, pleasures and desires. This is the way of salvation of man and mankind. The set of sacred books of the Buddhist religion is called Tititaka (three baskets). They were brought to a written structured form by the monks of Ceylon in 80 BC. Now there are 500,000,000 Buddhists in the world. In the Russian Federation, they prevail in Tuva, Buryatia, Kalmykia.
Philosophy of Buddhism. Man in Buddhism is neither someone's blessed invention, nor the master of his own destiny. In traditional Buddhism, a person is only an involuntary executor of the universal world law - Dharma. This law does not exist for man, but is realized and comprehended precisely in him. However, it is a person who, committing good and bad deeds, activates a certain ethical mechanism that underlies the universe. From the point of view of Buddhism, human life is not a priceless gift, as in Christianity, but only one of the moments in the chain of rebirths. Buddhists do not strive for eternal life after death, as they consider it a given, and not a higher goal. Eternal life, according to Buddhists, is the eternal hostage of death. In Buddhism, there is a so-called doctrine of dependent origination. Its essence is that the source of suffering for a person is the thirst for life, desires, attachment to life. Buddhists consider the world to be illusory, and, consequently, the pleasures that it promises are also illusory. Man is dependent on the law of cause and effect (karma). Living beings are doomed, according to the Buddhist point of view, to eternal rebirth, and the condition of any new existence is the sum of all previous ones, namely the sum of all good deeds, or accumulated merit, and bad deeds, accumulated anti-merits. Man, as a subject, is divided into thousands of fragments corresponding to past and future lives. Therefore, the whole chain of elements of “dependent origination” links not several lives in the “circle of births and deaths”, but instantaneous states of one – the only one, this life. Buddhism considers a person (as well as everything that exists in the universe and the universe itself) as a combination of various energy particles - dharmas. The very fact of a person's birth means for a Buddhist only inclusion in the endless process of being, where death is not the end of this process, but a transition to a different form of existence of consciousness - to an intermediate existence, which inevitably precedes a new birth. The acquisition of the new birth has a definite temporal disposition. AT this case a person is compared with the whole universe, which is also born, lives and dies. This process is cyclic and each time interval within this cycle has its own characteristics. In Buddhism, one of the most important places is occupied by the denial of the unity of the individual. Each personality is represented, as mentioned above, in the form of an accumulation of "changeable" forms. The Buddha said that personality consists of five elements: corporeality, sensation, desire, imagination and knowledge. Particular attention in Buddhism is given to human soul, as an eternal element participating in the cycle of life (the wheel of samsara). The soul breaks up, according to the teachings of the Buddha, into separate elements (skandhas). In order for the same personality to be incarnated in the new birth, it is necessary that the Skandas unite in the same way as they were united in the previous incarnation. The cessation of the cycle of reincarnations, the exit from the wheel of samsara, the final and eternal peace - this is the main element in the interpretation of salvation in Buddhism. The soul, in the Buddhist view, is an individual consciousness that carries the whole spiritual world of a person, is transformed in the process of personal rebirth and strive for the highest state - nirvana.
PHENOMENOLOGY. HERMENEUTICS
Hermeneutics is the science of understanding and interpreting texts. G.G. Gadamer created the theory of understanding. P. Riker analyzed the language in a wider context of social life and culture, uses the german to study literature.
The art and theory of interpretation, which aims to reveal the meaning of the text, based on its objective (gram meanings of words and their historically conditioned variations) and subjective (authors' intentions) grounds. It arises during the Hellenistic period in connection with the tasks of scientific research and the publication of classical texts and develops further within the framework of the interpretation of the Holy Scriptures. In the 19th century, the development of so-called free grammar began, not limited by the subject, the boundaries of the meaning of the text. In Dilthey, G. turns into a specific method of the general sciences, designed to provide an understanding of general events based on the subjective intentions of historical figures. At the same time, understanding was opposed to an explanation in natural science, associated with abstraction and the establishment of a general law. In the 20th century, philology gradually takes shape in one of the main methodological procedures of phylum, first within the framework of existentialism, then actually in phylum philology. Thus, in Gadamer, philology acquires the functions of ontology, since “being, a cat can be understood, is language”, social philosophy, since understanding is a form of the essence of common life and "criticism of ideology." The result is the closure of phyla in the circle of language, which makes G. related to the neopositivist analysis of language. Within the framework of the Frankfurt School (J. Habermas), G., as a critique of ideology, should reveal in the analysis of language “a means of domination and social power”, which serves to justify the relations of organized violence. Habermas G. acts as one of the consolidation of various currents of modern bourgeois philosophy. G. procedures can. used in history, law and other sciences dealing with the analysis of objectified res. conscious human activity.
Dilthey - G. - is a link between phil and history sciences. Hermeneutics. Hermeneutics (I explain, interpret) - the art and theory of text interpretation. Hermeneutics of the 70s–90s. develop "understanding" not as an applied task that arises in the process of interpreting texts, but as a fundamental characteristic of a person, as something that determines human being and thinking.
THE PROBLEM OF THE VALUE OF SCIENCE
Science yavl. main the form of people knowledge. Issue. social functions: 3 groups: 1) cultural and world outlook, science as uncontroversial. production strength as a social strength (used in solving various problems that arose in the course of general development). In this historical order functions arose and expanded. First in the Renaissance-I - the struggle between the theol. and science for the right to determine. world carrier. Pr-with prev-I science in production. force - creation and strengthening of permanent channels for pract. use scient. knowledge appeared. applied research. In modern era of science ledge. tzh. in quality social strength. Sl., the variety of sciences about the island: 1) Ethnography studies the life and culture of the peoples of the globe, their origin., Settlement and cultural and historical ties. 2) Legal science considered. the essence and history of state-va and law 3) Linguistics studies the language, its culture, the laws of functioning and development. 4) Pedagogy has as its subject the issues of upbringing, education and training of the younger generations in accordance with the goals and objectives of society. 5) Literary criticism studies fiction, the specifics of literature. creativity, social significance artist. liters. 6) Economics studies economics. relations between people, the laws governing the production, distribution and exchange of material goods. For scientific knowledge har-but the presence of 2 levels: empiric. and theoretical For the empirical knowledge is characteristic of fact-fixing activity. Theor. knowledge is essential knowledge, carried out at the level of abstractions of high orders. Theory is a generalization of practice, experience or observation. Observation and experiment are the most important. research methods in scientific. knowledge. Empire. and theor. the levels are connected, presuppose each other, although historically the empirical preceded the theoretical. In the process of scientific knowledge applied thought experiment when a scientist in his mind operates with images and concepts, mentally creates the necessary conditions. Theory is the highest, substantiated, logically consistent system of scientific knowledge, which gives a holistic view of the essential properties, patterns, etc. Theory is a developing system of true, proven by practice scientific knowledge. The core of a scientific theory is its constituent laws. The variety of forms of modern theoretical knowledge corresponds to the variety of types of theories, as well as the variety of their classifications.
Skepticism. the pessimistic position about the possibility of the world being knowable was formed back in antiquity - in its finished form by Pyrrho, who did not trust either reason or feelings. Later, skepticism was developed by E. Rotterdamsky, M. Montaigne and others. Skepticism in principle does not deny the possibility of knowing the world, but expresses doubts that this can be done with the help of the means at our disposal. Fundamentals of skeptical argumentation: feelings cannot be trusted, because different people can have different feelings; feelings cannot be trusted, because the sense organs are constantly deceiving us; reason cannot be trusted, because any proof relies on data that also needs to be proven, and so on ad infinitum. Consequently, nothing can be proved unless one accepts unproven axoms or dogmas on faith.
Anti-scientists see purely negative consequences of the scientific and technological revolution, their pessimistic moods intensify as all the hopes placed on science in solving economic and socio-political problems collapse.
Anti-scientists are sure that the invasion of science into all spheres of human life makes it soulless, devoid of a human face and romance. The spirit of technocracy denies the life world of authenticity, high feelings and beautiful relationships. A non-genuine world arises, which merges with the sphere of production and the need to constantly satisfy ever-increasing materialistic needs. The bright anti-scientist G. Marcuse expressed his indignation against Scientism in the concept of "one-dimensional man", in which he showed that the suppression of the natural, and then the individual in man, reduces the diversity of all its manifestations to only one technocratic parameter. Extreme anti-scientism leads to demands to limit and slow down the development of science. However, in this case, the urgent problem arises of meeting the needs of an ever-growing population in elementary and already familiar life goods, not to mention the fact that it is in scientific and theoretical activity that "projects" for the future development of mankind are laid.
Philosophy of Faith and Religion.
Religion is a form of social consciousness, the basis of which is belief in the supernatural. It includes religious performances, religious feelings, religious actions.
"religion" - conscientiousness, piety, piety, worship, holiness and shrine, doubt, sin, guilt, superstition, conscientiousness, a sign.
In philosophy, religion is a worldview, attitude, as well as appropriate behavior and specific actions (cult), which are based on the belief in the existence of one or more gods, "sacred", i.e. some form of the supernatural.
religion is one of the forms of social consciousness, a reflection of reality in illusory-fantastic images, ideas, concepts. In essence - one of the types of idealistic worldview. The main sign is belief in the supernatural.
Theology defines religion as a relationship that connects a person with God. God and the Devil are the basic concepts of religion
Religious consciousness. It is characterized by sensual visibility, images created by the imagination, as well as a combination of content adequate to reality with illusions, faith, symbolism, and strong emotional richness.
The most important element of religious consciousness is faith. This is a special psychological state of confidence in achieving the goal, the occurrence of an event, in the truth of the idea, provided there is a shortage of accurate information about the attainability of the goal and the final result.
Faith is the expectation that what is desired will come true. If an event has taken place or it has become clear that the expected cannot be realized, faith fades away.
Religious faith is faith:
into the objective existence of beings, properties, connections, transformations that are the product of the process;
in the possibility of communicating with seemingly objective beings, influencing them and receiving help from them;
in the actual occurrence of some mythological events, in their repetition, in the onset of such events and their involvement in them;
in the truth of the corresponding views, ideas, dogmas, texts, etc.;
Ordinary consciousness appears in the form of images, ideas, stereotypes, attitudes, mysteries, illusions, feelings, aspirations, direction of will, habits and traditions of people, which are a direct reflection of the conditions of people's existence.
a specially developed, systematized set of concepts, ideas, principles, arguments.
The main functions of religion.
compensates for the impotence of a person, the limitedness of his knowledge, the imperfection of the social, political system, etc., and also gives consolation, deliverance from disorder, injustice, resentment, political persecution. Religion offers a search for ways of salvation from the imperfection of earthly existence to deliverance from suffering,
gives a religious picture of the world.
seeks to explain the place of man in the universe, the problem of being and non-being.
Political - leaders of various communities and states use religion to explain their actions, unite or divide people according to religious affiliation for political purposes.
Communicative - communication between believers, "communication" with gods, angels (spirits), souls of the dead, saints, who act as ideal mediators in everyday life and in communication between people.
allows people to perceive themselves as a single religious community, held together by common values and goals
separates fellow believers from adherents of other religions.
Consciousness and the unconscious
The unconscious is a complex phenomenon, "its own other" consciousness (unconscious, subconscious, preconscious). Although man is primarily a conscious being, the unconscious occupies a large place in his spiritual life. For example, we are far from aware of all the consequences of our actions. Many human actions are mechanical, automated.
The variety of forms and manifestations of the unconscious is exceptionally great. Among them (besides those mentioned) are dreams, slips of the tongue, reservations, loss of completeness of orientation in time and space, some pathological phenomena (delusions, hallucinations, illusions), etc.
It would be wrong to equate the unconscious with the animal psyche. However, the concept of "human psyche" is wider than the concept of "consciousness". The lowest level of the human psyche is the unconscious. In fact, all human actions turn out to be a combination of the conscious and the unconscious.
The prehistory of the unconscious can be considered Plato's doctrine of anamnesis - the recollection by the soul of universal truths contemplated by it before it entered the body. In the future, the desire to comprehend the phenomenon of the unconscious went both along the lines of philosophy (Descartes, Leibniz, Schelling, Jena romantics, etc.), and along the lines of psychology - especially in connection with the study of pathopsychological processes and hypnotic phenomena (Bernheim, Charcot, Janet, etc. ).
However, the most widespread and influential concepts of the unconscious were created in the 20th century. Austrian psychologist and psychiatrist Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) and Swiss psychologist Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961).
Briefly, the essence of Freud's concept is as follows. The ideas developed by him are based on the idea of the dominant role of the unconscious in human life, instincts - mainly of a sexual nature. It is Freud who said that the “I” “is not the master in my own house” and that the consciousness of a person is forced to be content with pitiful information about what is happening unconsciously in his mental life.
Freud develops a structural concept of the psyche, which derives all mental dynamics from the interaction of three instances - It, I, Super-I. The unconscious id is, according to Freud, a "boiling cauldron of instincts." The task of the conscious I is to satisfy the impulses of the Id in such a way that it would not run counter to the requirements of social reality. The Superego, the representative of society, monitors compliance with these requirements. Let's take a closer look at this structure.
It (Id) is the most ancient psychic formation containing unrestrained primitive bodily instincts (sexual and aggressive drives). Its functions are entirely subordinated to the principle of pleasure. The simplest methods of revealing the content of the id, according to Freud, are the analysis of dreams and free associations.
The whole power of It is controlled by “libido” (lat. “attraction, desire”) - the mental energy of sexual desires, desires, i.e., sexual instinct. Freud described the ways of transforming the libido." An instinctive impulse can be: a) repressed undischarged into the unconscious; b) discharged in action, either through shame and morality, or through sublimation.
Sublimation (lat. “elevate, exalt”) is a mental process, which is the switching of the energy of the sexual instinct (libido) from immediate goals (lower) to non-sexual goals - socially and culturally acceptable (higher), morally approved: doing science, creating artistic works, self-development of a person, etc.
I (Ego) - that part of the personality that is aware of and reacts to the environment through its cognitive abilities. I am the mediator between the id and the superego. As the individual develops, differentiation of the Self and the development of the Super-I occur. Freud found that people differ significantly from each other in the forms and effectiveness of the activity of the I (in particular, they can be strong or weak).
The Super-I (Super-Ego) is the highest authority in the structure of mental life, which acts as an internal censor. The superego serves as a source of moral and religious feelings, a controlling and punishing agent, socioculturally conditioned
In other words, the Superego is a system of social filters. What is not passed through these filters is driven into the unconscious, from which you can get rid of the system of moral norms and social prohibitions, especially with the help of a sense of conscience.
The pathos of Freud's teachings is in the demand for the constant transformation of the Id into the I - a truly humanistic (albeit very difficult) and noble work, worthy of both each person and humanity as a whole.
K.-G. Jung, although he began working together with Freud, later diverged from him in his views. Their main differences concerned two fundamental points:
the role of the sexual principle in the mental life of the individual; understanding the nature of the unconscious.
Jung criticized Freud's pansexualism, proving, firstly, the inadmissibility of analyzing all manifestations of the unconscious only from the point of view of repressed sexuality and, secondly, the fundamental impossibility of explaining the origin of human culture and creativity only from the standpoint of libido.
Building his original concept of the unconscious, Jung proceeded from the fact that it:
1. is not at all a dark ocean of vices and carnal desires, forced out of consciousness in the process of the historical development of man;
2. a container of lost memories, as well as an apparatus
intuitive perception, far exceeding the possibilities of consciousness;
3. does not act to the detriment of a person, but on the contrary, performs a protective function, at the same time facilitating the transition of the individual to a certain, higher stage of development.
One of Jung's most cardinal ideas in psychology: in addition to the personal, individual unconscious, there is a deeper layer of the inner world - the collective unconscious, which has a universal superpersonal nature. Jung called the carriers of the collective unconscious archetypes (Greek “beginning, image”), which constitute its content (structure) and are inherent in all people from birth. Archetypes are diverse, the most important of them: Anima (feminine), Animus (masculine), Shadow, Person, Self, Hero, Savior, Monster, etc. Archetypes cannot be grasped by the mind, these are some mythical timeless and extraspatial formations common to all people. These are some “dormant thought forms” in which colossal energy is concentrated. Archetypes are "images-symbols", which are adequate expressions of universal human needs, instincts, aspirations and potencies, and, ultimately, precede human history. Archetypes are some pre-experimental structures that appear to a person through dreams, images, myths, fantasies, and imagination.
THE CONCEPT OF WORLD VIEW AND ITS HISTORICAL FORMS
Man is a rational social being. His work is worthwhile. And in order to act expediently in the complex real world, he must not only know a lot, but also be able to. To be able to choose goals, to be able to accept this or that
other solution. To do this, he needs, first of all, a deep and correct understanding of the world - a worldview.
A worldview is a system of views on the objective world and a person’s place in it, on a person’s attitude to the reality around him and to himself, as well as the beliefs, ideals that have developed on the basis of these views.
principles of knowledge and activity, value orientations. And indeed, a person does not exist otherwise than in a certain relation to other people, a family, a collective, a nation, in a certain relation to nature, to the world in general. This attitude rests on the most essential question: "What is the world?".
Worldview is the foundation of human consciousness. The knowledge gained, the prevailing beliefs, thoughts, feelings, moods, combined in a worldview, represent a certain system of understanding by a person of the world and himself. In real life, the worldview in the mind of a person is certain views, views on the world and one's place in it.
Mythological worldview - regardless of whether it refers to the distant past or today, we will call such a worldview that is not based on theoretical arguments and reasoning, or on an artistic and emotional experience of the world, or on public illusions born
inadequate perception by large groups of people (classes, nations) of social processes and their role in them. One feature of myth that unmistakably distinguishes it from science is that myth explains
“everything”, since for him there is no unknown and unknown. It is the earliest, and for modern consciousness - archaic, form of worldview.
Historically, the first form of worldview is mythology. It arises at the earliest stage of social development. Then mankind in the form of myths, that is, legends, legends, tried to answer such global questions as the origin and structure of the universe as a whole, the emergence of the most important natural phenomena, animals and people. A significant part of the mythology was cosmological myths dedicated to
device of nature. At the same time, much attention in the myths was paid to the various stages of people's lives, the secrets of birth and death, all kinds of trials that lie in wait for a person on his life path. A special place is occupied by myths about the achievements of people: making fire, the invention of crafts, the development of agriculture, the domestication of wild animals. myth is not the original form of knowledge, but a special kind of worldview, a specific figurative syncretic idea of natural phenomena and collective life. In myth, as the earliest form of human culture, the rudiments of knowledge, religious beliefs, moral, aesthetic and emotional assessment of the situation were combined. If in relation to myth we can talk about knowledge, then the word “knowledge” here has the meaning not of the traditional acquisition of knowledge, but of the worldview, sensual empathy (this is how we use this term in the statements “the heart makes itself felt”, “to know a woman”, etc.). d.). Myth usually combines two aspects - diachronic (a story about the past) and synchronic (an explanation of the present and future). Thus, with the help of myth, the past was connected with the future, and this ensured the spiritual connection of generations. The content of the myth was primitive man eminently real, deserving of absolute trust.
Mythology played a huge role in the lives of people in the early stages of their development. Myths, as noted earlier, affirmed the system of values accepted in a given society, supported and sanctioned certain norms of behavior. And in this sense they were important stabilizers of social life.
Close to the mythological, although different from it, was the religious worldview, which developed from the depths of the not yet dissected, not differentiated social consciousness. Like mythology, religion appeals to fantasy and feelings. However, unlike myth, religion does not "mix" the earthly and the sacred, but in the deepest and irreversible way separates them into two opposite poles. The creative almighty power is God
stands above nature and outside nature. The existence of God is experienced by man as a revelation. As a revelation, a person is given to know that his soul is immortal, eternal life and a meeting with God await him beyond the grave.
Religion, religious consciousness, religious attitude to the world did not remain vital. Throughout the history of mankind, they, like other cultural formations, developed, acquired diverse forms in the East and West, in different historical eras. But all of them were united by the fact that at the center of any religious worldview is the search for higher values, the true path of life, and the fact that these values, and leading to them life path is transferred to a transcendent, otherworldly realm, not to earthly, but to "eternal" life. All deeds and deeds of a person and even his thoughts are evaluated, approved or condemned according to this highest, absolute criterion.
