He laid the foundation for non-classical philosophy. The main directions of non-classical philosophy (textbook)
Key concepts:
Irrationalism, S. Kierkegaard's doctrine of existence, A. Schopenhauer's voluntarism, F. Nietzsche's philosophy of life
Philosophy of any historical period represents the self-consciousness of the era. The content of philosophical currents and concepts, the very method of philosophizing often reflects phenomena and processes that largely determine the prospects for the development of mankind as a whole. Thus, the largest thinkers of the second half of the 19th century tried to comprehend the essence and causes of the onset of the crisis of Western civilization in order to find new meaningful life guidelines and new ways of “inclusion” of a person in the world, both natural and social. In the development of European thought, this period is the beginning of the formation of a new type of philosophy - non-classical philosophy, which arose as an opposition to the previous philosophy with its cult of reason and objectivist, rational values and essences. Therefore, the non-classical philosophy of the second half of the 19th century - the beginning of the 20th century is largely irrational. Irrationalism is a direction in philosophy that claims that the mind is not able to cover the entire diversity of spiritual and material reality, for example, such non-rational forms of manifestation of the human spirit as intuition, will, fear, suffering, etc.
Philosophy of S. Kierkegaard
Soren Kierkegaard(1813-1855) Danish philosopher and writer. He is one of the founders of existential philosophy. Kierkegaard's main works: "Sickness to Death", "Fear and Trembling", "On Fear", "Either - or". Kierkegaard said that the disadvantage of classical philosophy is that it solves the question of man too abstractly, i.e. it is not interested in a specific living person with his problems, experiences, suffering, but “in general”. Philosophy must turn to man and help him to exist in this complex and absurd world. It was he who introduced the concept of "existence" into philosophical circulation, defining it as "being - between". This emphasized the intermediate, dependent nature of human reality, its dependence on something else that is no longer a person. “Life is a zero point between something and nothing, a simple “maybe” ... Man is a student of the “school of possibilities”.
According to Kierkegaard, man is a synthesis of the infinite and the finite, the temporal and the eternal. He introduced new concepts into the categorical apparatus of philosophy, such as: absurdity, fear, despair, melancholy, boredom, reflecting dramatic richness. human being and subjective attitude. “Longing is a person’s attitude to the world of his existence, and despair is associated with an attitude towards oneself”, with the awareness of one’s own finiteness - mortality.
According to Kierkegaard, a person in his development and search for the meaning of life goes through three stages:
aesthetic;
ethical;
religious.
At the aesthetic stage, a person is obsessed with passions; this is the ethics of the majority, based on the principle: “break the day”, i.e. "burn life". The extreme expression of aesthetic being is eroticism. The desire to seek sensual pleasures everywhere corrupts the aesthetic person from within, he becomes a prisoner of his own aspirations. Inevitably, satiety and a sense of the meaninglessness of existence sets in, accompanied by despair. This despair is connected with the desire to get rid of one's "I", to become "like everyone else." “Round like a pebble, such a person rolls everywhere like a bargaining chip, while the misfortune of a person is that he is not aware of himself. The life of such a person is an incarnation of monkeying. The symbol of the aesthetic man is Don Juan.
At the ethical stage, responsibility and a sense of duty come to the fore: "The ethical is that by which a person becomes." At this stage, self-determination of a person occurs in a purely rational way, according to the prescription of the moral law. An ethical way of life that is not based on higher values is also vulnerable. An example of this is the behavior of Ahasuerus, who, formally fulfilling his duty, refused to rest for Christ.
Only at the religious stage does a “break through” into a new sphere of being take place, the main principle of the third stage is “not what is chosen, but how it is chosen”. The “knight of faith” renounces the general in order to become individual, he accepts suffering as a principle of existence and, thereby, joins the share of the crucified Christ. “Suffering is an inevitable, proper existence.” The symbol of this stage is Abraham.
Philosophy of A. Schopenhauer
Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) – German philosopher, the founder of a system imbued with voluntarism, irrationalism. Voluntarism is a doctrine that highlights the will. The main work is “The World as Will and Representation”. At the center of his philosophy is the "World Will", as an impersonal super - an object that coincides with freedom. The will of the world is a powerful creative principle that generates all things. The will is also found in man, in the form of various desires, likes, likes and dislikes. The mode of existence of the will is action, therefore, through our own actions and experiences, we comprehend the essence of phenomena. Before man, the world is only will in various modifications; with the advent of man, it also becomes a representation. For man, the world turns out to be both will and representation. Will is a blind attraction, a dark dull urge, expressed in the need for survival. The blindly acting will needs a "guide", and the mind becomes a "lantern", illuminating its path.
In the animal and human world, the struggle for existence and the will to live are forms of realization of the world will. Embodied in a person, the world will determines his character and essence. Initially, a person is given an unchanging, intelligible character. Connecting with motives and desires, refracting through consciousness, it determines the individual variation of behavior, its attitude towards people and gives rise to an empirical character. A third character is added to it - acquired, the essence of which is knowledge of oneself, one's individuality and the unchanging foundations of an empirical character generated by an intelligible character.
Schopenhauer denies free will in human behavior, it is predetermined by his character, more precisely, by the dominant variety of his empirical character. He distinguishes three types of empirical character:
compassionate.
egoistic;
The most dangerous of all is a malicious character, for which the suffering and sorrow of others in themselves serve as an end, and their infliction is a pleasure. A truly moral character is a compassionate character, which ensures merging with other people and the manifestation of the generic essence of a person. Compassion turns our existence into co-existence with nature and other people. Life is full of need, grief and suffering, and the task of man is aesthetic contemplation and moral self-improvement. This helps him in the fight against death and suffering.
Human morality is expressed in three phenomena: compassion, justice and philanthropy. Compassion, as a feeling of suffering that does not comprehend me, arises from the ability of a person to identify himself with others. The only worthy way out for a person is an attempt to "jump" out of the meaningless cycle of life and find peace in the rejection of desires - this is the movement from being into "nothing". Schopenhauer's moral imperative: "forcing yourself to do nothing of what you want, you should do everything that you don't want." From here it follows - obedient acceptance of torment; asceticism in relation to oneself; altruism towards others. And as a consequence of these requirements - the complete elimination of egoism, because. earthly goods and pleasures are just as hostile to morality as hatred, envy and malice.
All happiness is negative, not positive. It releases from some suffering and deprivation, which will be followed by new suffering, or pointless longing and boredom. Optimism is a mockery of the unthinkable suffering of mankind. A fool pursues pleasure and comes to disappointment. A wise man tries to avoid trouble. A wisely living person realizes the inevitability of troubles (suffering), keeps his passions in check and puts a limit to his desires.
Philosophy of life F. Nietzsche
Friedrich Nietzsche(Nietzsche) (1844-1900) - German philosopher, one of the founders of the philosophy of life, based on the idea that the mind alone, previously considered the universal body of philosophy, is not enough to develop a holistic worldview. Its place must be taken by philosophizing, arising from the fullness of life, the fullness of experiencing life. One of the representatives of this school (V. Dilthey) proclaimed: "Life is an experience."
Nietzsche's teaching is divided into two parts:
1) positive (the idea of "superman", "love for the distant", etc.);
2) negative (the idea of "will to power", "eternal return", etc.).
Nietzsche's first book was The Birth of Tragedy, or Hellenism and Pessimism. It contains the idea of two principles of culture:
"Dionysian" (life, elemental, tragic),
"Apollo" (contemplative, logical, beautiful).
Only art, which in the early stages of mankind played a paramount role in comparison with science in the life of society, is a full-blooded embodiment and manifestation of true life. As for modern culture, with its orientation towards science, it turned out to be alien to life, because relied on an artificial, schematizing mind.
"The Birth of Tragedy" is the key to deciphering all of Nietzsche's subsequent work. Here he formulates the main task of his life and philosophy - the creation of a culture in which a person could ennoble his inner world, educate himself. Nietzsche wants to return to people clarity of spirit, simplicity and grandeur. Nietzsche's task is to affirm the supreme value of the cultural improvement of man, as a result of which a new type of man should appear, surpassing modern people in their moral and intellectual qualities. Such a cultural and ethical ideal of man is the superman. “Superman is a person who is able to surpass himself”, i.e. constantly improving himself, overcoming his shortcomings ("defeating dragons"). According to Nietzsche, man is only a path, "a cable car over the abyss from the beast to the overman."
Man (human spirit) in his development goes through three stages: a camel, a lion and a child. The historical superman is a personality of a higher type that existed in history as an exception, for example, Alexander the Great, Caesar, Napoleon. Superman is harmony, a synthesis of two principles: "Dionysian", with his thirst for life, and "Apollonian", i.e. logical and beautiful. Superman is a creator with a strong, impetuous, "long will", the creator of himself as an autonomous, free personality. It is distinguished by: the ability to sacrifice, giving virtue, generosity and endless thirst for active love, honesty, fearlessness, firmness and heroism. All this will allow the superman to give a truly human meaning to everything on Earth. "He is that lightning, he is that madness."
Life is a special kind of world energy, the will to power. The will to power is power over yourself and your life. Thinking is an instrument of power. “Love for the far” is a demanding love for a person, not for who he is, but for such as he can and should be, and he can be better. Thus, she does not deny "love of one's neighbor." "Love for the far" is also characterized as love for "things" and "ghosts". “Ghosts” (“things”) are the highest spiritual values, such as justice, beauty, truth, honor. In his work Beyond Good and Evil, Nietzsche speaks of the morality of slaves and the morality of masters. He divides people into these two categories not according to socio-political, but according to moral and spiritual criteria, i.e. a person can occupy a high place in society, but be a slave to his place, position, a puppet in the hands of others. And in any place he can be master, master of himself, his word.
Non-classical philosophy laid the foundations of modern (post-non-classical) philosophy and rationality, reflected the crisis of purely rational values of Western European culture.
AT classical philosophy the main problem is considered the existence of the universal the universe, the problem of the universal essence of man, the universal methods of cognition, the general principles of history. Non-classical philosophy seeks to emphasize originality, versatility various aspects of life, its individual fragments.
The classics are out of work, as humanity from the discovery and transformation of the forms of the natural world, proceeds to the penetration into the depths of matter and depiction of artificial reality. Replacement in progress nature technique, thing-event environment information-sign, a images and concepts signs and symbols.
According to classical philosophy, between knowledge, expressed in a clear logical form, and surrounding reality exists internal relationship, which fixed in the cognitive process. Enough to find universal methods of cognition, and the consistency between object and subject will be achieved. Non-classical philosophy is characterized by a different approach: the world and knowledge about it not internally connected, universal methods of cognition missing. Non-classical philosophy instead of and stiny draws attention to information and communication.
Classical philosophy is characterized immeasurable faith in human mind and progress of science. Non-classical philosophy appreciates the power of the mind more measured, reveals borders knowledge, paying attention to non-rational comprehension of the world.
The transition to non-classical philosophy is associated with language revolution. concept truth is replaced by the concept meaningfulness, language is considered as the ultimate ontological basis of thinking and activity.
There's been a turn from rationalism to philosophy of life.
Non-classical philosophy is characterized by awareness crisis of human existence, revealing its rootlessness, recognition of its creative possibilities and, at the same time, understanding the limitations and destructiveness of its claims. The subject of the action must bear a responsibility for its consequences, to act independently, and not as a "cog" of a huge mechanism.
In non-classical philosophy, dialectics is transformed into synergetics. To replace the thinker's monologue, ready the results of the activity of consciousness come uncertainty, « internal dialogue consciousness”, where it analyzes its internal structures and processes that lead to certain results. going on moving focus of interest with objective world on the perceiving, experiencing, and, ultimately, subject immersed in himself.
Non-classical philosophy orients mankind not to change the world, but to preserve civilization, becomes environmentally friendly. Man is presented not as the ruler of nature and the center of the universe, but as a being included in the diversity of life, correlating with various parts of the living not on the basis of domination and submission, but on the principles reciprocity and cooperation.
Non-classical philosophy is represented by a number of areas: phenomenology, positivism, existentialism, irrationalism, hermeneutics, postmodernism, etc. Let's consider the main provisions of some of them.
Leading direction in Western philosophy science - positivism. It is customary to single out forms of positivism: classical positivism (O. Comte, D. Mill, G. Spencer), empirio-criticism (E. Mach, R. Avenarius), neo-positivism (B. Russell, L. Wittgenstein, M. Schlick, etc.), postpositivism (I. Lakatos, T. Kuhn, P. Feyerabend and others).
Founder of classical positivism Auguste Comte(1798 - 1857). He divided the history of mankind into three stages: theological, metaphysical and positive.
On the theological stage is dominated by religion. All phenomena are explained by the action of supernatural forces. On the metaphysical Philosophy attempts to reveal the secrets of existence, to explain the meaning of human life, to comprehend the course of history, and so on. Positive (positive), that is new Philosophy, according to Comte, cannot give knowledge. It can only be separate sciences or their synthesis. new positive Philosophy Comte called the systematization of concrete scientific knowledge based on rational classification of sciences. He proposed his own classification, in which he arranged the sciences according to the degree of their metaphysical. The purest from metaphysics in Comte are mathematics and astronomy, and the most metaphysical is history, which he proposed to replace with sociology - the science of the general laws of the development of society.
Neopositivism appears in several forms. Its main variant is analytical philosophy. her representative Bertrand Russell(1872 - 1970). In philosophy, he most valued logic. According to Russell, logic provides a method for the study of philosophy, just as mathematics provides a method for physics. Logical analysis of language sentences reveals inadequacy their use. In language, Russell identified proper names and descriptions. proper names point to a particular carrier. They are significant in themselves and do not need contexts. Descriptions denote signs and abstractions and exist only in the whole sentence.
According to Russell, subject of philosophy – logical analysis sciences in order to detect the final structures of their material in the form atomic(indivisible) facts forming elementary sentences. On the basis of such atomic facts, with the help of a logically perfect language, it is necessary to build a new scientific picture peace.
Postpositivism emerged in the 1970s. Like neo-positivists, post-positivists are mainly engaged in the study of science and its language. But if neopositivism paid primary attention to the study of the structure of scientific knowledge, contrasted the empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge, adhered to a linear approach to the history of science (it was believed that knowledge accumulates gradually), delimited science from philosophy, then postpositivism focuses on the dynamics of scientific knowledge, the interpenetration of the empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge, the study of the role of scientific revolutions, the inclusion of philosophical justifications in research programs.
The leading anthropological trend in Western philosophy is existentialism. It will be discussed in more detail when considering the problems of modern anthropology.
Modern philosophical hermeneutics is a direction in which understanding interpreted as a condition of social existence. The beginning of philosophical hermeneutics is usually associated with the name Friedrich Schleiermacher(1768 - 1834). He developed techniques for reconstructing the meaning of a text. The main one is hermeneutic circle. Its meaning is as follows. On one side , part text understood from the whole, a whole- from parts. On the other hand, in the process of understanding, we seem to be moving in a circle, since understanding of the whole arises not from parts for they are only out already understood whole can be treated as its parts. Repeated return from the whole to the part and from the parts to the whole helps, according to Schleiermacher, the comprehension of meaning.
Wilhelm Dilthey(1833 - 1911) transferred the philological model of understanding to historical science. In his opinion, understand the meaning historical event possible with the help comprehension of the plan its characters. This is possible through empathy(feeling, empathy, putting oneself in the place of another).
The most authoritative representatives of modern hermeneutics are Martin Heidegger(1889 - 1976) and Hans Georg Gadamer(1900 - 2002). Here there is a change in the direction of interpretation. If the former (romantic) hermeneutics focused on the link Author → Text, then the modern one focuses on the link Text → Interpreter. Although, since hermeneutics does not accept strict and categorical judgments, we can talk about the complementary nature of these strategies. Gadamer called this position confluence of horizons. Understanding here is completed in the actualization of the text to be understood to the present situation.
Heidegger rejects Dilthe's interpretation of understanding as empathy. According to him, a person cannot be represented as a kind of isolated from the world is a subject who understands the world as an object. Every person is original being in the world. Human impossible without his relation to the world. Heidegger describes two ways of being-in-the-world: Befindlichkeit - finding, immediacy of consciousness and Verstehen - understanding. Both are carried out simultaneously.
On the one hand, man is not ready a being who can understand all things in all their certainty. But he is a being open to the future able to develop. On the other hand, a person cannot abstract from own being. His being, his origin precede him and determine his. We are defined in our understanding by our past, so understanding does not exist without pre-understanding. Such an understanding of understanding excludes claims to universal truth.
Gadamer complements these views with the concept effective-historical consciousness. According to him, historical consciousness dominant in Western thinking in the twentieth century, claims historicity and relativity all formations, except yourself, so it appears as objective knowledge. Effective-historical consciousness is aware of both its relativity and limb, thereby obeying the course of history.
NON-CLASSICAL PHILOSOPHY (second half of the 19th-20th centuries)
Conventionally, in non-classical philosophy, there are several programs aimed at rethinking the classical type of philosophizing:
1) irrationalistic tradition in non-classical philosophy ( S. Kierkegaard, A. Schopenhauer, F. Nietzsche);
2) socio-critical program (Marxism, neo-Marxism, post-Marxism);
3) critical-analytical program (neopositivism, postpositivism, analytical philosophy, structuralism);
4) existential-anthropological-psychological program (phenomenology, hermeneutics, existentialism, psychoanalysis).
The main features of the classical type of philosophizing
1. Classical philosophical systems were distinguished by their claim to integrity, completeness, monologue-instructive style of presentation, and the desire to explain the laws of objective and subjective reality.
2. Classical rationalism described the objective world in terms of an active worldview, activity. There was an identification of activity and consciousness.
3. Rational knowledge, boundless faith in science, in progress, in the ability of an extra-individual and individual mind, in the possibility of reorganizing the world on the basis of Reason.
4. Within the framework of classical philosophy the highest absolute value is the mind. Freedom is understood as freedom that has no boundaries, as the absolute freedom of the individual, as a necessity known by reason.
5. The style of philosophizing is characterized as rule, rigor, consistency, evidence, rational reasoning scheme. The classics are characterized by deep confidence in the natural orderliness of the world order, in which there is reasonable order and harmony.
Features of non-classical philosophy
1. The status of the mind itself, the cognizing subject, the structure of the cognitive process is being revised, which leads to actualization irrationalism(lat. irrationalis - unreasonable, unconscious), who believes that the mind is not able to capture all the diversity of the real world and pays attention to non-rational forms of a person’s spiritual manifestation (will, intuition, the unconscious, etc.)
2. Within the framework of non-classical philosophy, the central one becomes anthropological problem, a person is considered here as a being experiencing, doubting, feeling, self-creating, practically transforming nature and society.
3. Non-classical philosophy moves from a monologic edifying style of thinking to dialogic, subject-subject style.
4. Non-classical philosophy moves from the search for universal principles, ultimate essences, universals to self-value of individual, unique, peculiar, single.
5. Within the framework of non-classical philosophy, a change of paradigms is carried out, which is expressed in a linguistic turn - the transition from the philosophy of consciousness to the philosophy of language.
Marxism and Neo-Marxism. Arises in the mid-40s of the XIX century. Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels.
Marxism tried to solve the following questions: patterns of development of society, materialistic understanding of history, anthroposociogenesis, causes of social stratification, the phenomenon of social consciousness.
Materialistic understanding of history proceeds from the fact that the conditions of human life (social being) determine the views of people, their goals, values, theories (social consciousness). The basis (basis) of social life is way of producing wealth..
The mode of production is the unity of productive forces and production relations. The productive forces are the instruments of labor, the means of production and the people employed in it. Industrial relations are relations between people.
rises above the base superstructure, which includes: public institutions and organizations, political, legal relations, public consciousness (morality, religion, science, philosophy, art, etc.)
Certain production relations correspond to a certain level and character of the development of the productive forces. The source of social development is the contradiction between the productive forces.
The stage of development of society with the corresponding mode of production of material goods, the basis and superstructure is called socio-economic formation. Marx and Engels distinguish five socio-economic formations: primitive communal, slaveholding, feudal, capitalist and communist.
Methodology of Marxism: dialectical materialism. The central concept of the philosophy of Marxism as a doctrine of the dialectical process is concept of universality of development.
The purpose of cognitive efforts is to reach the truth. Truth is defined in Marxist philosophy as the correspondence of thought, our knowledge of the world to the world itself, objective reality. Practice is the criterion of truth. It connects and correlates the object and the action performed in accordance with the thought of it.
Capitalism alienates people from the product of labor, from labor itself, from their own human nature, and from each other.
Philosophicalirrationalism
Arthur Schopenhauer. Schopenhauer's main work "The World as Will and Representation"(1819), according to which the world is not at all based on the principles of expediency, reasonableness. According to Schopenhauer, there are no rational forces in the world at all, but there are will, the will to live, the desire for self-affirmation. Will- this is a blind impulse to life, an irrational desire that permeates everything. The world is only a mirror of this volition, acting as a representation.
Nietzsche Friedrich (1844 - 1900) - a German thinker who became the founder of the " philosophy of life." Romanticism the young Nietzsche, when he is entirely under the influence of the ideas of Schopenhauer and G. Wagner;
Stage positivism associated with disappointment in Wagner and a sharp break with the ideal of the artist: Nietzsche turns his gaze to the "positive" sciences - natural science, mathematics, chemistry, history, economics;
Period mature Nietzsche or actually Nietzschean, imbued with the pathos idea of "will to power". In turn, the work of the mature Nietzsche, in terms of the order of the problems he considers, can be represented as follows:
a) creation affirmative part of the doctrine by developing a cultural and ethical ideal in the form ideas about the "superman" and the "eternal return";
b) negative part of teaching expressed in idea of "revaluation of all values".
Nietzsche's central concepts are: superman, will to power, sublimation, master morality, slave morality and eternal return. His superman- is, first of all, a creator with a strong, impetuous, "long will", the creator of himself as an autonomous and free person.
Philosophy of positivism, neo-positivism and post-positivism
Positivism. As an independent trend, positivism took shape in the 30s of the 19th century. ( O. Comte and G. Spencer). The focus of positivists has always been on the question on the relationship between philosophy and science. Comte declares a decisive break with the philosophical (“metaphysical”) tradition, believing that science does not need any philosophy standing above it.
Arises second historical form of positivism Machism, empirio-criticism, i.e. critique of experience. (E. Mach, R. Avenarius and others). The Machists believed that the task of philosophy is not to build a "synthetic" system embodying the general conclusions of all sciences, but to create theories of scientific knowledge.
Neopositivism, analytical philosophy ( 20s of XX century) Logical positivism accepts the thesis about the dominant nature of the provisions of logic and mathematics. Logical positivism is closely related to the so-called linguistic turn in philosophy. The problem is at the center of his interests. values language expressions. It pursues two goals: 1) to exclude from science all meaningless reasoning arising from the misuse of language; 2) to ensure the construction of ideal logical models of meaningful reasoning.
Postpositivism . The principle of verification (verification by experience) is replaced by the principle of falsification (refutation) proposed by K. Popper. Postpositivism insists on the importance of a historical approach to the study of science. In the process of development of science, as a result of scientific revolutions, there is a change of paradigms (from the Greek. paradeigma example, example). A paradigm means a set of theoretical, methodological and other guidelines adopted by the scientific community at each stage of the development of science, which are guided as a model (model, standard) in solving problems. So in physics at the turn of the XIX - XX centuries. there was a transition from Newton's paradigm to Einstein's theory.
Philosophy of existentialism
50 - 60s of the XX century. Existentialism reflected the contradictions and illnesses of the society of the 20th century, presented a description of situations of a spiritual crisis, when an impersonal being manifests a sense of meaninglessness, insufficiency, and the incorrectness of his being. Moreover, many representatives of existentialism with amazing ease and skill used the pen of a writer, an artist, describing real "boundary" situations in which abstract "existentials" are filled with flesh, the life world.
Distinguish religious(Berdyaev, Shestov, Jaspers, Marcel, Buber) and atheistic(Sartre, Camus, Heidegger, Merleau-Ponty) existentialism. The fundamental principle of existentialism can be expressed in words: existence precedes essence, that is, initially a person simply exists, but he still has to acquire essence, he is only a project. The constant search for oneself, concern for gaining the essence is a difficult lot for a person, his constant choice, the creation of himself and others.
As the original and genuine human existence, self-experience, the existence of being, which is single, personal, finite and comprehended directly, stands out. The description of the structure of human existence is reduced in existentialism to the description a number of its modes - fear, guilt, anxiety, suffering, conscience. It is at the moments of the deepest personal upheavals - in "border situations" – man experiences existence as the basis of his being.
The true essence of man is revealed only in existence,which reveals itself in borderline situations. These are situations of a special kind that “sober up” a person, encourage him to understand his true calling, distract him from the monotonous and fleeting bustle of everyday life. To comprehension of existence encourages, for example, encounter with death.Document
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General characteristics and main directions of non-classical philosophy. The period in the history of Western European philosophy from the middle of the 19th to the middle of the 20th centuries is usually called non-classical. The development of philosophical ideas of this time took place in the general context of understanding and reinterpreting the achievements of the classics. The construction of any philosophical system was carried out either on the basis of the conceptual ideas of the previous classical tradition, or was based on their total denial and rejection, but one way or another, a new - non-classical - type of philosophizing was formed as a result of the development, deepening and addition of the classical philosophical systems of Kant, Fichte , Schelling, Hegel.
The noted tendencies make it possible to carry out a typology of all philosophical directions of the non-classical period according to the principle of acceptance-non-acceptance of the conceptual foundations of classical philosophy. Thus, all areas of non-classical philosophy can be conditionally divided into two large groups:
Directions that support the general principles of rationalist philosophy. This group can include all neoclassical schools, such as neo-Kantianism (K. Fischer, O. Liebman, F. Lange and others - in the 19th century, the Marburg and Baden schools of neo-Kantianism in the 20th century), neo-Hegliancy (F. Bradley, R. Collingwood, A. Kozhev and others), Marxism (K. Marx, F. Engels) and neo-Marxism (G. Marcuse, T. Adorno, J. Habermas and others), as well as areas whose conceptual foundations are generally built on traditional-classical understanding of rationality, such as structuralism (K. Levi-Strauss), positivism (O. Comte, G. Speneser, E. Mach, R. Avenarius), neo-positivism (M. Schlick, R. Carnap, B. Russell) and analytical philosophy (L. Wittgenstein, D. Moore, D. Austin), phenomenology (E. Husserl, M. Heidegger).
Directions of an irrational nature: "philosophy of life" (F Nietzsche, W. Dilthey, G. Simmel, O. Spengler), psychoanalysis (3. Freud, C. Jung), existentialism (S. Kierkegaard, K. Jaspers, J. Sartre, A. Camus).
Within the framework of non-classical philosophy, an attempt is made to revise and supplement the previous (classical) ideas about rationality, based on the principles of unity and integrity of the cognizing subject and the absolute certainty of the existence of the objective world. The main attention of philosophers is directed to the sphere of the subjective, the understanding of which also significantly expands the previous ideas about a person: if in classical philosophy thinking was considered the dominant, specific characteristic of the subject (in a verbal, discursive form, ideally logical thinking), then in this period philosophers turn to comprehension of such manifestations of subjectivity, which were usually considered secondary, or even completely excluded from the sphere of consciousness (will, intuition, the unconscious, etc.). In general, we can say that the main problem of non-classical philosophy is the problem of consciousness. The objectivist attitude, questioned even by Descartes and Kant, in the non-classical period finally loses confidence on the part of the majority of philosophers, and it is in the mind that the only undoubted basis of reliable knowledge is found. The interpretations of consciousness presented in the teachings of this period demonstrate the most diverse views on the nature of this phenomenon.
The main representatives of non-classical philosophy. Of the representatives of irrationalist trends, such philosophers as F. Nietzsche and S Kierkegaard should be especially noted. Philosophical directions are considered to be irrationalistic, in which the world and man are understood on the basis of such a primary essence, which is alien to the mind and inaccessible to it. The term "irrationalism" unites various philosophical systems, the authors of which put forward as a fundamental principle something that lies outside the mind: will, intuition, instinct, contemplation, insight, etc.
All European culture, starting with Socrates, inspires a person with false values and imposes false meanings. From the point of view of Nietzsche, a person forgot the unity and fullness of life, indulging in the search for and substantiation of entities alien to their nature - knowledge, morality, religion, thereby turning life's beauty and elements into something that should be evaluated, measured, limited. Ordinary life is strictly regulated, there are less and less opportunities for personal manifestation, and mediocrity triumphs more and more. Consciousness thus deceives itself, guided by the prejudices of reason, and the history of philosophy from Socrates to Hegel "turns out to be the history of the long submission of man, as well as the history of the arguments that man invented to justify his submission." (Deleuze J. Nietzsche. - St. Petersburg, 1997, p. 34) "Life" in its fullness, integrity, immediacy opposes the regularity and shape of "being" (the subject of study of rationalist metaphysics), it is an "eternal becoming" devoid of attributes, in which there is no purpose and which cannot be judged as true or false, good or evil, bad or good. Becoming cannot be the subject of science, since its essence is always deeper than we can express through language.
That is why science, knowledge, morality, etc. distort life and impose false values on consciousness. Religion plays a particularly negative role in this process, sharp criticism of which is characteristic of all Nietzsche's works.
All the processes of physical and spiritual life, the philosopher seeks to present as various modifications of the action of the will to power. The will to power is not the lust for domination, such an understanding of it, the most common in contemporary culture characteristic of the psychology of slavery. The will to power expresses the triumph of power and creation as integral characteristics of life. In other words, the essence of life is the embodiment of the will, manifested in the active, active, creative - affirming - nature of the forces that make it up. The oblivion of life has led to the fact that modern norms and stereotypes have replaced true values, and the history of European culture demonstrates the triumph of a negative negative force, as a result of which a society is formed that cultivates the ideals of slavery, weakness, illness instead of the beauty, strength and health inherent in life. new philosophy and new person are called to rehabilitate forgotten meanings, to overcome the ambitions of reason and reason, and to try to open for mankind the world "beyond good and evil": "God is dead, and I want - let the superman live."
In contrast to the Hegelian objective dialectic, Kierkegaard creates a subjective or existential dialectic, in which the process of the formation of a personality in its gradual ascent to God is traced. The concept of "existence" (from the Latin "existence" - existence), first proposed by Kierkegaard, is adopted to denote the singularity, uniqueness and specificity of the being of a person, as opposed to the concept of "essence" (from the Latin "essence" - essence), which refers to the world of things In contrast to the classical (primarily Hegelian) panlogism, which dissolves being in thinking and is confident that being, to the smallest detail, is permeable to thought and fits into concepts, Kierkegaard argues that existence is that which always eludes understanding through abstractions. , it is a deep, internal, individual expression of personality.Existence is not available for understanding through scientific methods, it can be found in the only way - by making a choice and abandoning the sensory-contemplative way of being, determined by external factors of the environment to oneself.This is the path to finding existence Kierkegaard reveals in the doctrine of the three stages of subjective dialectics.
The existential maturation of a person is his path to God, on which he successively passes through three stages: aesthetic, ethical and religious. The aesthetically living individual achieves emotional enjoyment by the refusal to acquire the "truth" of his existence, this refusal inevitably entails dissatisfaction and despair. At this stage, a person is determined by the external, his goal is pleasure. The principle of the ethical stage is duty, however, the true achievement of existence is carried out only at the highest - religious - stage.
Existentialism - philosophical direction, whose representatives highlight the absolute uniqueness of human existence, inexpressible in the language of concepts. Strictly speaking, existentialism is not philosophical school, this term is used in relation to quite different thinkers, therefore it is more correct to speak not about a direction in philosophy, but about a special - existential - thinking. Kierkegaard is considered the forerunner and founder of existentialism, however, his views have long existed as an isolated phenomenon. Existentialism becomes popular only after the 1st World War, and in the 40-50s. After the 2nd World War, it acquires the status of the most widespread worldview. In the 20-30s, such thinkers as K. Jaspers, G. Marcel, M. Heidegger are called the main representatives of this trend; in the 40-50s, new ideas are formed in the teachings of A. Camus and J.P. Sartre.
Existentialism is characterized by special attention to ontological issues, which means that existential thinking unfolds exclusively in the sphere of being, and all other traditional philosophical problems acquire secondary importance as particular consequences of the solution of the main ontological question. This is a question about the definition of existence in the general structure of being, i.e. concretization of the ontological nature of human reality in relation to the rest of the principles of the universe. The fundamental property of human reality is its "intermediate" character, which emphasizes its lack of independence, dependence on something else that is not a person.
The nature of this "other" existentialists understand differently. Religious existentialists (Berdyaev, Shestov, Jaspers, Marcel, and others) define this otherness as "transcendence" (aspiration beyond one's own limitations towards something higher and genuine), which is revealed in an act of faith. With all the differences among themselves, religious existentialists insist that the Divine is revealed only in an act of faith and exists only in it and only as long as this act lasts, and is not a prerequisite for faith. Only in the effort to retain this act is it possible to achieve "authentic existence." On the contrary, outside the striving for transcendence, there is a degradation of the personality, its depersonalization and dissolution in the routine of everyday life. But even in such a situation, no matter how humiliated a person is in social reality, he at least vaguely feels his involvement in something higher, since existence is an existential, indelible characteristic of human reality. The orientation of a person to the world means an inauthentic existence, "abandonment", and the desire for the transcendent is genuine. A person hears the "call of being", "the exclamation of being" in such phenomena as "fear" (Jaspers, Heidegger), "existential anxiety", "nausea" (Sartre), "boredom" (Camus). All these phenomena have not a psychological, but an ontological meaning, which lies in the fact that a gaping abyss of being opens up to a person, which he had not noticed before, quietly vegetating in the hustle and bustle of everyday affairs. Now his destiny is not a well-fed peace with guaranteed rations, but the risk of a personal decision and personal responsibility for his own being. This is the "authenticity", which is more difficult to endure than a thoughtless existence within the framework of the established order of things. Thus, religious existentialism calls a person from the world to God, to self-deepening, which allows one to find a new, transcendent dimension of being, overcoming the limitations of the individual Self.
Representatives of atheistic existentialism A. Camus and J.P. Sartre consider being to be self-sufficient, self-sufficient and autonomous, denying God as its absolute expression. The main problem for these thinkers is the question of identity - the self-determination of a person ("Who am I?"). Man exists in a state of "abandonment", the world does not give him an answer to this question. There are no prescriptions, no scenario of our life, and a person is free to choose who he should be, free to determine his identity. This means that man is the only being in the world whose existence precedes his essence (definition). The opportunity given to him to be free is realized in the corresponding choice of authentic or non-authentic being. Representatives of atheistic existentialism understand these categories differently than religious ones. So, for Sartre, such an existence is inauthentic, which strives for "positivity", for unlimited self-affirmation at the expense of others, which, according to Sartre, is equivalent to the desire to become God. Genuine existence, on the contrary, is the recognition of the inalienable freedom of the other along with my own freedom, so that every act of my choice becomes a choice for all and in the name of all.
Phenomenology is a philosophical direction founded by the German thinker E Husserl (1859-1938). Literally translated, "phenomenology" means: the theory of phenomena or phenomena. Representatives of this trend criticize the traditional objectivist attitude of classical science, believing that the only reliable reality is only the reality of pure consciousness. "Pure" in phenomenology is called consciousness, freed from the prejudices of psychologism and naturalism, i.e. consciousness cleansed of the "natural attitude" through the procedure of phenomenological reduction. Consciousness usually stays in a state of "natural setting", i.e. is influenced by schemes and patterns that set a rigid framework for the study of the world. Phenomenology represents an attempt to build a new type of science - a science without prerequisites and unbiased. The biggest delusion of consciousness, which is in the "natural setting", is the belief in the existence of an objective reality outside and apart from our consciousness, a reality that is "in fact". In order to be able to know what really exists and on what a new science should be based, it is necessary to carry out the procedure of phenomenological reduction - the purification of consciousness from all prejudices. To do this, it is necessary to mentally exclude from the space of reality ("bracket") those of its fragments, the authenticity of which can be doubted. Thus, the outer world (maybe this is a collective illusion), other people's opinions and knowledge (delusion), feelings, emotions, etc. are consistently outside the brackets. The only reliable reality, which cannot be doubted, is the reality of pure consciousness after the procedure; it can serve as the basis for further construction of knowledge.
The whole world, called in the "natural setting" objective, is only a phenomenon of consciousness. Therefore, for a phenomenologist there is no object-material reality "in itself", respectively, there are no standards for its study. The subject, from the point of view of the phenomenologist, can exist only as a phenomenon given to our consciousness, and its study is reduced to the study of ways of givenness. Thus, the real thing is not a material reality, but the reality of those meanings and meanings that the object acquires in the horizon of consciousness. Thus, describing the given and manifestations of these meanings, we describe the objects themselves in all the variety of their manifestations. Thus, phenomenology tries to overcome the one-dimensionality of science by proclaiming the need to return "back to the objects themselves." The life world is diverse in manifestations, they cannot be studied through scientific method, they can only be described phenomenologically.
2. Philosophy of positivism
2.1. Prerequisites and conditions for the emergence of a positivist-oriented philosophy
2.2. Initial principles and features of the “first positivism” (O. Comte, G. Spencer, J. Mill)
2.3. Machism (empirio-criticism): main ideas and causes of influence among natural scientists
2.4. Neo-Kantianism
3. Existentialism S. Kierkegaard
4. Philosophical ideas of A. Schopenhauer
5. Philosophy of life
6. Philosophy of pragmatism
7. Conclusion
1. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF NON-CLASSICAL PHILOSOPHY
Under non-classical philosophy, it is customary to understand the totality of disparate philosophical currents that arose in Western Europe in 19 st. outside the boundaries of German classical philosophy. The latter, however, is most directly related to the emergence of these currents, because by the very fact of its presence and influence on the minds of contemporaries, it stimulated a critical attitude towards itself and the desire to overcome it.
Starting from the Renaissance and the New Age and up to the middle of the 19th century. in Western Europe, the tradition of rational philosophy was taking shape and strengthening, which found its final form in philosophical systems representatives of German classical philosophy, primarily I. Kant and G. Hegel.
The real history of the 18th and 19th centuries, however, did not claim this philosophy: raised to the top human values reason proved powerless both to explain and to prevent disharmony and chaos, which became the content of social life. Together with the collapse of Napoleonic France at the beginning of the 19th century. the high ideals of the Age of Enlightenment (reason) were put to shame; in the 1930s and 1940s, the class struggle sharply intensified in Germany and France, denoting irreconcilable positions in society. This split deepened towards the end of the 19th century. and resulted in an attempt to radically reorganize the very foundations of economic and social life (the Paris Commune in 1871). Franco-Prussian War 1870-1871 Mrs. passed her verdict on the spiritual values of the age of reason. Progressive illusions about a future golden age were dispelled.
Another factor that pushed aside German classical philosophy was the revolution in natural science and the industrial revolution. The triumph of chemistry, the creation of the theory of conservation of energy, the discovery of electromagnetic induction by Faraday, the theory of magnetism by Ampère; by the end of the 19th century. the discovery of radioactivity, X-rays, etc. could not go unnoticed by the public consciousness. All this happened against the backdrop of intensive application of knowledge for the modernization of production and technical innovations. The world was changing before our eyes: the first railway, the first automobile, the first experiments in aeronautics, the electric telegraph and the electric light bulb, then the telephone, radio communications, and much more. Technique aggressively invaded spiritual life, gaining leading positions in it. The European became involved in this process; science and technology became more valuable "philosophy" because their use promised new benefits.
Attention is also drawn to such a circumstance as the population explosion that occurred on the European continent. If in the period from 6 to 1800 the population of Europe could not exceed 180 million. people, since 1800. to 1914 it reached 460 million, that is, it increased by more than 2.5 times. The arrival of the masses on the arena of history marked at the same time a shift in emphasis in culture. classical philosophy could no longer enjoy success outside the university departments.
The dynamic 19th century, as we see, broke many of the usual ideas of people. Along with bright hopes, there were disturbing forebodings, and fears, and fear of the unknown. All this heightened interest in purely human forms lives that rational philosophy has kept silent about. The currents that made up the content of non-classical philosophy, namely, existentialism, the ideas of A. Schopenhauer, the “philosophy of life”, pragmatism and positivism, despite its commitment to science, experience, usefulness,. etc. are essentially irrational. Departure from reason, its denial as a spiritual value is an essential feature of non-classical philosophy.
Her other common feature pluralism (plurality) of concepts, ideas, approaches, currents, a kind of “discordance” among philosophers. The meaning of what is happening can be understood only if you hear all at once, and not individually each of them.
Non-classical philosophy marked a greater attention to man, an attempt to see him in all the complexity of his many-sided nature. This is its humanistic content.
