Functions of social philosophy. Test: The subject of social philosophy The essence of the predictive function of social philosophy
So, the problematics considered by me in the work is within the framework of general philosophy and philosophies of management and organization of economic activity are very burning. In our time, when until now, as a relic of the past, the administrative method of management still remains and the system of labor social security is not developed, when there are no clear regulatory guidelines regarding the social component of labor activity, reforms are needed. As part of the reforms, it is necessary for future leaders of enterprises and organizations to study the basic principles and methods of personnel management in general, and social psychology in particular.
As a science, philosophy studies historical events, the experience of previous generations. Philosophy is the science of universal laws to which both being (ie nature and society) and human thinking, the process of cognition, are subordinate. Philosophy is one of the forms of social consciousness, ultimately determined by the economic relations of society. The main issue of philosophy, as a special science, is the problem of the relationship of thinking to being, consciousness to matter. Any philosophical system is a concretely developed solution to this problem, even if the “basic question” is not directly formulated in it. In philosophy, there is a polarization into two opposite directions - to materialism and idealism, dualism occupies an intermediate position between them. One of the fundamental areas of philosophy are the philosophy of science, social philosophy, philosophy of history, philosophical anthropology. The philosophy of science is a field of philosophy that studies science as a specific area of human activity and as a developing system of knowledge. Philosophical anthropology - a philosophical doctrine of man, which has been widely developed in recent years, is considered by some Marxist philosophers as a philosophical discipline that answers the question: "What is a man?", Synthesizing an objective scientific and value vision of man and the world. Philosophical anthropology and social philosophy touch in many areas of research. Social philosophy, as a science, intersects with such general scientific areas as psychology, management, law, cultural studies, etc. Social philosophy, in its essence, is an applied science. engaged in the study and justification of the life of a person and social groups in society, as well as social formations. Social philosophy determines the parties and qualitative methods for resolving the issues of the functioning of such institutions as the state, society, organization. Subjects social philosophy are a person and society, an object, a subject of research - human relations in all their forms of manifestation.
2. What is social philosophy?
General Knowledge
Term "organization", is derived from the word "organ" and has three different aspects of meaning, which explains the complex interaction of objective and subjective factors in public life. Firstly, it can denote a separate object, for example, a construction organization, a financial organization. Secondly, subjective activity, action with a specific purpose, for example, organizing a meeting, organizing a tourist trip. And finally, the structure of the object, for example, the bodily organization, the hierarchical organization of the form. Term "social organization of labor"
combines all three of these aspects: objective conditions (division and cooperation of labor, social relations of property and power, as conditions for motivation and labor discipline); Subjective activity to preserve or change social working conditions; the structure of the social organization of labor as a definite system with its own elements and levels.
Functions of social philosophy
The most important function of social philosophy is foresight, the prediction of a more or less distant future. Scientific theory predicts the regular stages in the development of the human race, the emergence in the future of a true history in which the human essence will receive its full expression and free development.
The two main specific functions of social philosophy, as well as philosophy in general, are ideological and methodological. They are called specific because, in a developed and concentrated form, they are inherent only in philosophy.
Worldview is a set of the most general views and ideas about the essence of the world around us and the place of man in it. For a correct understanding of the ideological function of philosophy, it is necessary to take into account at least two points.
1. Ways of forming a person's worldview. An individual's worldview can be formed either as a result of obtaining scientific knowledge in the process of education (including self-education), or in the spontaneous process of personality formation under the influence of the social environment. At the same time, mixed, hybrid variants are also possible, when some elements of the individual's worldview turn out to be scientifically verified, while others remain at the level of conventional wisdom with its prejudices and delusions. We will not sin against the truth if we say that no philosophical system, even the most modern and perfect, guarantees the absolute absence of such prejudices and delusions in the views of the individual, if only because she herself is not completely free from them. And at the same time, only a systematic philosophical education is able to reduce the "mythological" component of our own worldview to a minimum.
2. Philosophy is still not the whole worldview, but “only” its core, since all branches of knowledge, all those academic disciplines that are studied by students at the university (general history, psychology, physics, linguistics, etc.) participate in the formation of a worldview .). Each of them in a hidden, and often open, form contains worldview conclusions and, accordingly, contributes to the worldview training of a future specialist.
As noted above, along with the ideological function and in close connection with it, social philosophy performs a methodological function.
The philosophical method is a system of the most general principles of the theoretical study of reality. These principles may be completely different. One can, for example, approach one and the same phenomenon under study as developing, or one can approach it as unchanged, given once and for all. Depending on this, the results of theoretical research and practical conclusions from it will differ significantly.
In the history of philosophy, two main philosophical methods can be traced - dialectics and metaphysics.
Summing up, we can distinguish the following lines of interaction between philosophy and particular sciences:
a) at each historical stage in the development of science, the philosophical method is synthesized from the achievements of private, specific sciences, reflecting the spirit of the science of its time, its qualitative specifics;
b) in turn, each of the specific sciences uses the philosophical method as a system of general principles of approach to the study of phenomena and processes of interest to it.
On the one hand, the method is included in the worldview, because our knowledge of the surrounding social world in the most essential moments will be incomplete if we abstract from the universal interconnection and development in it. On the other hand, ideological principles (and, above all, the principles of the objectivity of laws community development, the principle of the primacy of social being) are part of the philosophical method.
In addition to the main functions discussed above, which only philosophy performs, it is necessary to take into account its enormous importance in the implementation of extremely important general scientific functions - humanistic and general cultural. Of course, philosophy performs these functions in a specific, only inherent way - the way of philosophical reflection. Let us also emphasize that the non-specific nature of the humanistic and general cultural functions does not at all mean that they are of lesser philosophical, interdisciplinary, and social significance than the specific ones.
The humanistic function of philosophy is aimed at educating the individual in the spirit of humanism, real humanism, scientifically substantiating the ways of man's liberation and his further improvement.
It can be said without exaggeration that philosophy is today the most important element of the spiritual culture of mankind. “It seems to me,” wrote a prominent German physicist, Nobel Prize winner, Max Laue, “that all sciences should be grouped around philosophy as their common center and that serving it is their own goal. In this way, and only in this way, can the unity of scientific culture be preserved against the irresistibly progressing specialization of the sciences. Without this unity, the whole culture would be doomed to death.”
It is known from the history of philosophy how fruitless were the centuries-old attempts to consider philosophy as a "science of sciences", squeezing all other sciences into the Procrustean bed of general schemes and replacing these sciences. And only having acquired its specific functions, philosophy ceases to be useless: it gives specific sciences what they themselves cannot synthesize - a worldview and methodology, a general humanistic meaning and cultural significance.
Also of particular interest, both for the science of organizing economic activity, and for the heads of organizations, is such a factor in the internal environment of the functioning of an enterprise as organizational behavior. The behavior of people determines their cooperation and even the struggle for resources, status, autonomy and rewards. Contradictions between individuals often manifest themselves in the relations between different groups within organizations. Organizational behavior as a special field of knowledge, it studies the system of these relations and the influence that a person, group and structure have on behavior in an organization is used to take measures to increase labor productivity, strengthen discipline, reduce staff turnover, and increase job satisfaction. When we talk about organizational behavior, we mean those actions that can be observed and that can be evaluated. The study of organizational behavior has an important practical application and involves the use of patterns and provisions of other behavioral sciences - psychology, social psychology, anthropology.
Psychology allows you to evaluate, explain and often change the behavior of people. Organizational behavior psychologists specialize in teaching methods, personality research, and organizational psychology counseling. Based on the provisions and laws of psychology, they study the problems of fatigue, the monotony of labor and other problems of working conditions that impede an increase in its efficiency. The study of organizational behavior from the standpoint of the behavioral sciences contributes to obtaining the knowledge necessary for a manager.
From the point of view of the behavior of individual groups and the development of intergroup relations, horizontal control systems, in which decision-making centers are widely distributed, are more preferable than pyramidal structures. Pyramidal structures are inherently vertical systems for the distribution of managerial functions. At the same time, their indicative features are the strict style of distribution of managerial functions and decisions, as a rule, the distribution goes according to the administrative type. Pyramidal structures should be modified to provide:
Greater participation of groups in making critical decisions;
· a more democratic attitude of the top management to the groups and the organization of their interaction;
Decentralization of decision-making to the greatest extent possible;
Delegation of rights, less emphasis on management hierarchy;
less narrow specialization of tasks.
It is necessary to understand that the behavioral manifestations of relationships are in the range of "cooperation - rivalry - conflict". High importance in the light of this formula for the organizational team is precisely the social factors of influence. In particular, they often have the qualitative status of bipolar, i.e. positive and negative stimuli, and their value (+ / -) depends on a particular situation, as well as the personal qualities of the subjects they affect, such social factors and related conditions (attributes) of activity as limited resources and benefits. From the point of view of social management philosophy, the factors mentioned above are of particular importance in the light of the problems of organizing economic activity, personnel management, and, above all, creating such an organizational internal climate and production mood that allows an enterprise (organization, firm) to function stably, develop dynamically . Here it is necessary for the management of the enterprise to develop such a social policy, norms, rules, decisions, and attitudes that will allow creating conditions and a positive atmosphere of cooperation, which will certainly affect the quality of the enterprise.
It is necessary to take into account the facts that, in practice, especially in large enterprises, such a behavioral manifestation as competition can stimulate employees to increase the volume and improve performance. At the same time, in certain circumstances, its impact can be devastating. Collaboration often helps groups and individuals achieve more than they could on their own. But it can also lead to complacency, inflexibility, and the destruction of all positive outcomes. We know that the desire for rivalry, competition can lead both to the tension in the team, antagonism within social groups, and quite possibly, to the desire of some employees to harm the rival, and it turns out to be the enterprise, and to a positive result for the team and the enterprise, above all, when positive rivalry is expressed " the race for results in the production of products, servicing and attracting customers, etc., provided that the quality level of work, services, and products is maintained and improved.”. It is the latter state that subsequently reveals positive results, both for the enterprise team, expressed in improving the skills and motivation of the staff, and for the enterprise itself. At the same time, here the results can be expressed both in an increase in the level of quality of products, which may subsequently lead to an increase in consumer demand, and in an increase in production volumes. Thus, we imagine that rivalry and competition can be qualitatively defined as special group intra-organizational relations, transformed into intra-organizational conflicts . As a behavioral phenomenon, intra-organizational conflicts can have a different form, a qualitative definition, and a different subject composition, as well as an objective essence. A conflict in an organization can develop within social groups, between them, between a group and its specific member, etc. Conflicts, by their very nature, are one of the complex, integral aspects of economic organizational activity, and in view of this, conflict management for enterprise management is an important task. The resolution of conflicts, and in their special forms and situations, even the stimulation of conflicts, is necessary for the management of the enterprise within the framework of the personnel management system, and can be reflected in the planning system of the organization's personnel management policy. Note that the sciences are known to develop methods for managing positive, and even negative conflicts. Some methods of managing conflicts in the organization and behavior in general, we will present in our work below.
An important factor in the organization of an enterprise and personnel management in the light of philosophy is the importance of such a general aspect of economic activity as organizational culture . Organizational culture is associated with a broad conceptual base, including the beliefs of people, their relationship with each other and with the external environment. In an organization with a positive morale, employees may feel that their leaders truly trust people and that the success of the organization lies in their attitude towards employees. The elements of organizational culture include its following parameters and properties:
individual autonomy - the degree of responsibility, independence and the possibility of taking initiative in the organization;
Structure and structural interaction;
direction - the level of formation of the goals and prospects of the organization's activities, and this concerns goal-setting, both in the process of short-term planning and in the process of long-term planning of the enterprise;
integration - the degree of support for individual parts (subjects) of the organization in order to ensure coordinated activities;
management support;
· support;
stimulation;
Identification - the degree of identification of employees with the organization;
· Conflict Management;
· risk management – the degree to which innovation and risk-taking are encouraged.
In organizations, there are dominant cultures and subcultures. The dominant culture expresses the core (central) values that are accepted by the majority of the members of the organization. Subcultures develop in large organizations and reflect common problems and situations faced by employees, the experience of their resolution. Culture change requires a specific strategy cultural management organizations. She suggests:
a) culture analysis, which includes an audit of the culture to assess its current state, comparison with the intended (desired) culture and an intermediate assessment of its elements that need to be changed;
b) development of special provisions and measures.
4. The head of the organization (enterprise, firm), as "chief sower" principles of social philosophy
4.1. General knowledge
The growing role of the cultural factor in management is an important requirement of our time. The socio-philosophical analysis of managerial culture in modern conditions of dynamism and instability is one of the main tasks of science. At the same time, to achieve success in management activities, it is not enough to study only economic or socio-political aspects. An important success factor is the improvement of managerial culture in its anthropological dimension. The relevance of social philosophical analysis essence, containing the priority of the development of the managerial culture of the leader of modern Russia, is more specifically determined by the following circumstances:
First, at present, the social problems of the development of Russian society and its citizens are identified as a priority. Behind the decision of any task there should be professionally trained personnel. Today, specialists in the field of social management who are in demand are not only able to reveal sharp contradictions, but also professional interest, and effectively solve them.
Secondly, today the existing system of training
specialists - managers does not provide the proper level of formation of their managerial culture, and the Russian economic conditions are not able to create the necessary prerequisites for its development.
Thirdly, the degree of development of the problems of managerial culture in the socio-philosophical aspect is insufficient, which makes it difficult to comprehend the essence of this phenomenon, causes difficulties in identifying contradictions and determining functioning trends, searching for optimal models of formation and development in modern conditions. In addition, the mechanism for stimulating the professional growth of the leaders of the modern Russian Federation, in terms of spiritual development, improving its general and professional culture, is poorly developed.
The main influence on the development of managerial culture was the socialist stage in the development of statehood. Existed in Russia until the mid-1990s. In the twentieth century, the party-bureaucratic system formed a special authoritarian style of management.
4.2. Tasks and pedagogical conditions for the education and training of enterprise personnel in the field of general quality management
The idea of improving the quality of life in society arose in the twentieth century. and was formulated at the end of the 60s. an authoritative meeting of politicians, businessmen, scientists - the Club of Rome. In accordance with this idea, the main tasks of society look like this: protecting the rights of the individual, including protecting the rights of consumers to quality services and goods as inalienable rights of the individual, etc. The main figure of such a society is the consumer, i.e. everyone. His requirements (if they are socially safe) take precedence over the capabilities of the manufacturer and are protected by the institutions of the state and society. Quality begins with the very personality of a person, the development of his spiritual and creative capabilities, realized in creative and transformative activities. Education plays a special role in shaping a person who is able to make such changes in the field of his professional activity that are necessary for more and more effective and efficient solutions to quality problems. The tasks of education and upbringing in the field of quality are formulated based on the needs of production and consumers of products and services: education life position, the formation of active work of the employee (readiness, desire, suitability, etc.); gaining knowledge in the field of quality management theory, problem solving methods, statistical process control, the basics of measurement techniques, etc.; acquisition of skills in applying the acquired knowledge in practical activities; ability to use the experience gained in a new situation.
As for the pedagogical conditions, it is necessary to use the forms and methods that are successfully used in successful foreign enterprises, as well as the real elements of education and educational work, which is used in the modern period of life, namely: the “cascade” method of teaching, when teachers from among working at the enterprise, and then, in turn, training of personnel; training; professional retraining in universities; etc. Of course, this system needs to be supplemented. Modern content, its organization at a high professional level in accordance with the requirements of international standards ISO 9000 and taking into account the organizational culture of the enterprise and the priorities here are: developing the structure of the personnel training system at the enterprise: establishing a list of disciplines; the procedure for the selection and training of teachers; development of curricula for all levels of education; development of methodological materials; development of the schedule of the educational process.
We also judge the attitude of employees to their work by their emotional state before the start of the working day (with what feeling they leave work). This approach is legitimate because emotionality is inextricably linked with the characteristics of the personality, its moral potential: the directions of the motivational sphere, worldview, value orientations, etc. In order to study the professional culture of personnel, it is necessary to identify the motives and motivations of employees for good work. The main motivational factors are: the desire to be useful (43.9%), the desire to be good specialists (30%), a sense of duty and responsibility. Equally important is also the material motive (good earnings) and the desire to take a higher position (careerism). A questionnaire survey shows that 54% of respondents intend to constantly improve their knowledge and experience, look for ways, and achieve success in their work. The attitude towards active participation in the social life of the team in order to achieve the greatest return from each of its members is much less pronounced (24.1%).
At the level of personal legal culture, it is an indicator of the degree of social and legal adaptation of the individual to the existing order in society, an important regulator of behavior.
Among the many aspects of modernity, the issues of managerial culture are objectively updated. This is due to the following:
Firstly, the increased capabilities of a person in various areas of life require a more thorough approach to the organization, management and control of their actions;
Secondly, a significant increase in the last decades of the intensity and scale of the processes in various fields implies prompt human intervention in order to prevent destructive changes that have global consequences;
Thirdly, it becomes obvious that the potential of technization is clearly being exhausted, the need for additional reserves for an adequate solution of the pressing problems of our time is increasingly felt, and an informational (modern) person needs spiritual foundations, more stable points of support in his activities;
Fourthly, at present, in the field of management, the problem of staffing positions with personnel who have a managerial culture as a professional quality has not been fully resolved.
Any leader works primarily with people and, because of this, cannot but know the basics of human relations, the nuances of human psychology, the characteristics of different types of personality, the range of their interests and requests, the patterns of behavior in various situations. It is designed to identify and boldly use the strengths and weaknesses of a person, his professional and personal potential in the interests of business. To do this, you need to master the vast humanitarian, human knowledge, methodology and methodology of "human engineering". The terms "management" and "culture" are quite clearly defined and are used as semantic units in various sciences: philosophy, sociology, cultural studies, management theory. In philosophical dictionaries, the definition of managerial culture is not reflected, but it is quite possible to use it along with the key categories of social philosophy, such as “society”, “public relations”, “activity”, “personality”, since the phenomenon of public order is indicated. Managerial culture could be represented as a kind of fusion of unity and diversity of managerial actions and decisions aimed at maintaining the integrity of the entire social (management) system, its qualitative specifics, as well as the reproduction and development of coordinated actions, both subjects of management and subjects of managerial influence. Lifestyle, as a socio-philosophical category, reflects the totality of typical types of life activity of an individual, social group, society as a whole, which is taken in conjunction with living conditions, makes it possible to comprehensively and interrelatedly consider the main areas of people's life: their work, life, social life and culture, identifying the causes of their behavior (lifestyle), due to the way, level, quality of life. The necessary property of the manager is humanism, humanity, as a specially formed, exclusive attention to people, which is based on the recognition of the values of a person as a person, his right to free development, the affirmation of the good of a person as a criterion for assessing social relations. Without a humane attitude towards people, it is fundamentally impossible to talk about managerial culture, since the whole meaning of social management is lost. Considering the complex social nature of the phenomenon of managerial culture, it should be noted that the knowledge of a modern manager cannot be limited to the field of management theory. So, for example, the lack of information in the field of management psychology can lead to the fact that the manager cannot cope with the distribution of tasks, taking into account psychological features one or another employee, and this ultimately leads to failure to complete the task.
From the point of view of enterprise management, according to modern requirements, a modern manager needs professional competence in a whole list of areas of activity, areas (blocks) of knowledge that allow the manager to create a favorable socio-psychological climate in the team. Professional Competence - necessary condition access to control. There are several main aspects:
Firstly, as the final result, the expediency and rationality of the activity. Competence can also be characterized as the ability to understand the internal logic of the functioning of various systems, connections and processes, possible ways and means to achieve goals, as the possession of a list of professions and related knowledge. Management psychology is of particular importance. With a broad approach, management psychology is considered at the level of the personality of the leader and subordinate, i.e. the object of management psychology is any subject (person) included in the system of professional relations, characterized by a hierarchy of statuses, positions, subordination. Socio-psychological relations act as interrelations of people, mediated by the goals, objectives, and values of joint activity, its special (professional) content. The psychology of management should just realize the task of conjugating the social and psychological, create such conditions for the interaction of subjects, distribution of tasks, application of methods of influencing processes that would organically, fully, adequately, objectively and situationally allow each personality to be realized. In the aspect of management psychology, it is impossible not to say about the socio-psychological methods of management, focused on the use of the socio-psychological capabilities of employees. Among them: motivation of professional work; formation of the labor collective, taking into account the socio-psychological characteristics of people; social regulation and stimulation; satisfaction of social, cultural and domestic needs, requests and interests of subordinates; support for a favorable socio-psychological atmosphere in the team, etc. Understanding that social management is implemented in society, with the assistance of active subjects (people), it is necessary to talk, first of all, about the problems of the individual in professional activity.
Moral principles, norms, values are important regulators of social relations, behavior and activities of people in various fields of activity, including social management. The more they are rooted in the minds and beliefs of people, and even more so the leadership, the more respectable the social atmosphere, the more stable the situation in the team.
An indicator of a high management culture is such components of the management system that: firstly, ensure the achievement of the goal on the principles of humanity, legality, social justice; secondly, they take into account the interests and needs of participants in management processes; thirdly, they form a healthy climate in a professional team, low conflict, creativity, motivated activity.
5. The essence of social management of an enterprise (organization, firm)
5.1. Philosophical foundations of modern social management
A pragmatic practical management philosophy is aimed at achieving a certain goal (management result), which requires a significant emphasis on planning, control over the course of real management processes, on the motivation and qualifications of the leader; secondly, many modern areas of management activity are considered organic, such as strategic management, situational management, integrated development of the leader and organization, etc. Here, management by results means a management system, a system of thinking and behavior of members of the organization, which allows subjects to manage creative activities and respond flexibly to changes in the market economy and use various innovations in the management system.
An important role from a practical and theoretical point of view is played by the state of social relations, i.e. figurative state of society and economy, i.e. market. It means the condition of activity. The philosophical basis of management activity within the framework of the "risk society" is the principle of uncertainty, covering the areas of information, politics, economics, etc. Since the risk in modern society is largely due and determined by social factors, management activities should be based on social technologies for removing uncertainty and reducing the degree of risk. Risk in our time acquires the property of a specific resource that can increase the degree of stability social object operating under conditions of uncertainty.
For us, it is essential that now, in the conditions of a "common risk society", it is no longer enough to have a linear model of management, the universal principles of classical management theory, which has as philosophical basis rigid determinism and allowing in some cases to obtain the highest, maximum result. Now other principles of management are coming to the fore, expressing the concreteness and diversity of the socio-economic development of society and its non-linear, stochastic, probabilistic nature.
In a certain case, the results of the analysis of various historical models of social management deserve attention. This analysis was carried out by him on the basis of identifying two characteristic functioning of social systems: a measure of complexity, which is determined by the number of active elements, and the magnitude of social pressure, the intensity of external control influence on the individual.
In the twentieth century in natural science, a new picture of the world has developed, characterized by complexity, uncertainty, and non-linearity. Now these ideas penetrate into the sphere of social and humanitarian knowledge, where a person is considered as a subject that acts in the conditions of uncertainty of a wide range of alternatives, which makes the historical process complex and non-linear. Consequently, managerial activity in all spheres of society (political, economic, cultural, etc.) must correspond to the stochastic and nominal nature of the social world and take into account the degree of risk in the process of subjective action and management of the development of certain social structures (including , include organizations, institutions, firms, enterprises). In theory, given the social philosophy in the management of an organization, enterprise, firm, we see an opposition to the linear model of management (which includes the administrative form of management that existed in the USSR and echoed in the organization of economic activity in Russia until the mid-90s, and traces of it have survived to the present day), and a non-linear control model. The non-linear model of social management is characterized by a stable functional complexity and a society that is non-linear in nature. The essence of the non-linear model of managing social processes is that these processes can be managed in the right direction using special measures of influence, when significant results are achieved with a minimum expenditure of political, legal, economic and other means, many times exceeding the efforts expended. And vice versa, a distinctive feature of such a model of social management is that the result of many economic, political and other managerial actions often turns out to be inversely proportional to the great efforts made and opposite to the purpose of these actions.
It is also necessary to note one important point- as you know, the management of the organization's knowledge and learning abilities is now becoming a key parameter of corporate management.
Also of particular interest is the management study of a new concept that comes to the fore, based on three components - training, work and organizational process, which are derived from knowledge.
Of great interest is the so-called "reflexive control" . Reflexive control is understood as the art of influencing a person with the help of information messages (control without the formation of a connection), in a broader sense, a specific method of control over individuals. A feature of reflexive control is that a certain very simplified model of another subject or object is built, on its basis a certain message is sent to it, and at the same time the information contained in this message is put into the constructed model. Then no feedback is required, since it is possible to obtain information about the subject only because a message organized in a certain way is sent to him.
In fact, a competent leader who has an idea and wants to develop together with the enterprise must combine two different forms of management in the organization: management and leadership. In order to effectively manage subordinates, the leader must have leadership influence. This is necessary, since it is known that most conflicts in the organization are ignited under the influence of different levels of leaders. The leader has psychological qualities: self-confidence, a sharp and flexible mind, competence, strong will, the ability to understand the peculiarities of people's psychology, and organizational skills. There is a situational theory of leadership, according to which the leader becomes the person who, in the event of any situations in the group, has the qualities, abilities, experience necessary for the optimal resolution of this situation for this group. Ideally, the manager should single out such people among employees and interact closely with them, and also not only situationally, but also as currents activities to demonstrate appropriate leadership qualities.
The leader must have an idea about the possibility of applying the list of necessary actions in problem situations that arise in the structure of purposeful activity as situations of sudden and unexpected obstacles to achieving its goal, including conflict situations.
Manager's knowledge block:
Interpersonal relations are to a certain extent emancipated from momentary vicissitudes in the process of conscientious activity, and therefore are not unambiguously connected with the subject of the interconnection of the members of the collective that is updated at any given moment. In a generalized form, the process of joint activity can be represented as the deployment of functionally different stages of goal realization. These stages can be distinguished, for example:
a) putting forward or accepting a goal by the group;
b) planning activities, determining the stages of achieving the goal;
c) organization of activities, coordination and "linking" actions in a single process;
d) execution, implementation of subgoals and tasks;
e) control and correction, etc.
Many objective and subjective factors that determine the real process of collective activity predetermine the fact that the functional-role structure of the group "strives" to conformity with what is objectively necessary under present conditions, but never coincides with it. The constantly renewed overcoming of this contradiction is one of the driving forces for the development of the objective activity of the collective, a prerequisite for adapting activity to changing conditions for its reproduction. Bringing the current level of subject-activity relationship into line with the required one is accompanied by a restructuring of interpersonal relationships proper, a fragile system of intragroup expectations.
The system of contradictory and heterogeneous expectations that the head of the primary production team falls into when realizing a social role can act as a leading determinant of the emergence of a role conflict.
Also, a competent leader must know and be able to correctly apply knowledge of the laws of management psychology. We give a brief description of them.
Law of Response Uncertainty
Its essence is to reveal the dependence of people's perception of external influences on the differences in their psychological structures.
The manager who gives the order to the employee hopes that it will be completed by a certain date and with a certain result, but these hopes are not always justified even when “ debriefing" there is a complete divergence of positions and approaches. Practical following from the operation of the law may consist in the fact that, based on knowledge of the psychological characteristics of people, to influence them in different ways, differentiating the form of orders and commands in accordance with the expectations of subordinates, to influence by such methods in order to use the maximum possibilities of each employee.
The law of inadequate reflection of a person by a person
Understanding the limitations of our capabilities in the knowledge of such systems as a person, at the same time we must strive for the truth, selecting the necessary tools for each. The leader is simply obliged to master both simple and modern scientific methods of psychodiagnostics of people, to be able to evaluate them objectively.
The law of inadequacy of self-esteem
The leader needs to develop a very important attitude for managerial activity - the desire to limit subjectivism in self-esteem.
Law split the meaning of managerial function
To minimize information distortion, theorists specifically recommend using the following means: creating a special management language with a set of basic terms that are understandable to everyone, constant attention of managers to their speech as a tool for managing people, and optimizing the ways of information flow in the management and production system.
Law of self-preservation
The leader must take into account that a rude shout or ridicule of the leader against someone, instantly "turn off" the brains of all those present at the meeting, meeting, workplaces.
Law of Compensation
Its essence is that the insufficiency of any abilities is compensated by other abilities or skills.
Also, a competent leader needs to know:
- Murphy's law;
- Murphy's law of thermodynamics;
- Axioms of Parkinson;
- Old and Kahn's law;
- Mencken's law;
- Imhoff's law;
- Runemon's law.
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8. Philosophy of management. - Digest of articles. Rep. Ed. V.V. Neither, G.P. Stipitsyn, - Chelyabinsk, fil. MKU, 1995
Social philosophy is a branch of philosophy designed to answer the question of what society is and what place a person occupies in it.
The object of social philosophy is social life and social processes. However, the term "social" itself is used in the literature in different senses. Therefore, it is necessary to define what is meant by this term when we speak of social philosophy. First of all, we note that, on the one hand, natural phenomena are excluded from the concept of the social, and, on the other hand, individual, personal phenomena. That is, social phenomena are always social phenomena. However, the concept of "social phenomena" includes economic, political, national, and many other phenomena.
The well-known Russian-American sociologist P. Sorokin gives the following, characteristic of his general philosophical concept definition of a social phenomenon:
A social phenomenon is a world of concepts, a world of logical (scientific - in the strict sense of the word) being, which is obtained in the process of interaction (collective experience) of human individuals.
The illegitimacy of this definition, in our opinion, lies in the fact that the entire objective, material reality of society, which lies outside the "world of concepts", falls out of the social sphere. In reality, social life, social being includes not only spiritual phenomena and the “logical world”, but also objective, material phenomena and the “sensory world”.
It seems to us that the correct point of view is that social reality includes various aspects of social life. In short, the social life of society is the joint existence of people, this is their event. It includes material and spiritual phenomena and processes, various aspects of public life: economic, political, spiritual, etc. in their multilateral interaction. And social action is always the result of the interaction of a number of social factors.
Therefore, the main subject of social action and social relations is community group(social community) or society generally. A characteristic moment of social life is its organization and structure within a certain social system. different kind interactions between the elements of a social system form its structure. The elements of this system themselves are diverse. It includes various ways of its functioning, diverse social institutions that ensure the implementation of social relations. And, of course, such elements are the main subjects of social life - social communities and individuals organized into social groups.
Based on the above, the following definition can be given:
social philosophy is a system of theoretical knowledge about the most general patterns and trends in the interaction of social phenomena, the functioning and development of society, the holistic process of social life.
Social philosophy studies society and social life not only in structural and functional terms, but also in its historical development. Of course, the subject of its consideration is the person himself, taken, however, not “on his own”, not as a separate individual, but as a representative of a social group or community, that is, in the system of his social ties.
"Social philosophy studies the laws according to which stable, large groups of people are formed in society, the relations between these groups, their connections and role in society." Here are correctly named the laws that social philosophy is called upon to study. Based on our understanding of its subject, it would be necessary to show more widely the range of problems that make up its content. In particular, we must not forget that social philosophy studies the entire system of social relations, the interaction of all aspects of social life, the patterns and trends in the development of society. In addition, she studies the features of the cognition of social phenomena at the socio-philosophical level of generalizations. In other words, social philosophy analyzes the holistic process of changing social life and the development of social systems.Functions of social philosophy.
The subject and specifics of social philosophy cannot be revealed without touching upon the question of its functions.
The functions of social philosophy are basically the same as those of philosophy in general, but they have their own characteristics. Let's name the main ones.
1. Worldview function social philosophy lies in the fact that it forms a person's general view of the social world, that is, the existence and development of society, in a certain way solves questions about the relationship between people's being, the material conditions of their life and their consciousness, about the place and purpose of a person in society, the purpose and meaning of his life, etc.
2. theoretical function social philosophy lies in the fact that it allows you to penetrate into the depths of social processes and judge them at the level of theory, that is, a system of views about their essence, content and direction of development. At the theoretical level, we can talk about trends, patterns of development of social phenomena and society as a whole.
Associated with the above functions methodological function social philosophy, which consists in the application of its provisions in the study of individual phenomena and processes of social life, studied by various social sciences. In this case, the provisions of social philosophy play the role of methodology in research carried out in the field of historical, legal, economic, psychological and other sciences.
Finally, predictive function social philosophy lies in the fact that its provisions contribute to the prediction of trends in the development of society, its individual aspects, the possible immediate and long-term consequences of people's activities. On the basis of such foresight, it becomes possible to build forecasts for the development of certain social phenomena and the whole society.
These functions of social philosophy are manifested in the thinking of a person if he masters the philosophical worldview, theory and methodology of philosophy. In this case, he acquires the ability to think systematically, dialectically, to consider social phenomena in their interaction, change and development. As a result, a certain methodological discipline of thinking is formed, making it strictly logical and clear, which is an indicator of the culture of thinking.
In conclusion, we note that all the functions of social philosophy are dialectically interconnected.
38. Society as a self-developing system. Human society It is the most complex living system in its essence and structure. The concept of society encompasses not only people living today, but also all past and future generations, that is, all of humanity in its history and perspective. The life of society in its entirety is not a chaotic heap of accidents, but an orderly organized system that obeys the laws of functioning and development. Each new generation, entering into life, does not start history anew, but continues what was done by their predecessors. Their activity is to a certain extent determined by objective conditions that do not depend on their consciousness and will (objective factor). However, the new generation does not just repeat what their ancestors did, but realizes their own needs and interests. The diverse activities of people, their living labor invariably and continuously introduce new features into the character of society (subjective factor). The development of society is presented as the result of a complex interaction of these two factors. The process of their interaction is characterized by a trend and direction. In general, human society has gone through several stages of development, from the primitive, stone, to the modern, informational post-industrial. Historically, society is never the same. driving force society in a broad sense is the interest, the desire of people to find best forms life. In a narrow sense, the mainspring of the development of society is contradictions, the struggle of opposing forces in society. At the present stage, people are aware of the global problems facing society.
39. Materialism and idealism about the historical process. Formational and civilizational approaches to the knowledge of social life. Materialism and Its Historical Forms. (from lat. - material) - direction in phil-ii, reduction of being to matter. Everything that exists is material, though not necessarily material. Materialism is one of the forms of the naturalistic worldview and denies the existence of any extra-natural principles (God, absolute spirit).
The position of materialism is the primacy of matter - an objective reality that exists outside and independently of consciousness, spirit, developing according to its own laws. In materialism there is no doctrine of being.
In the history of materialism, there were attempts to create global speculative constructions, so the atomists Leucippi and Democritus believed that the world is based on invisible particles - atoms that differ from others in shape, position, order. Democritus argued that the soul also consists of atoms.
It is impossible to logically prove the existence of an objective source of our perceptions, but without this, statements about matter lose their meaning, so materialism adopts experience and common sense (“naive realism”). Philosophical teachings Berkeley, Kant show that experience does not prove that the world exists independently of our consciousness. Therefore, in search of the ultimate foundations of being, materialism was forced to merge with the sciences. Mechanistic materialism arises - it absolutizes the principles of mechanics, economic mat-m - the principles of economics, vulgar mat-m - reduces thinking to neurobrain processes. Materialism could not answer many questions and the only way out was to abandon the theory of being and focus reflexive efforts on the process of cognition, eliminating the absolute idea, God, such materialism was called dialectical - its essence is outside human consciousness and objective reality exists independently of it - matter.
Modern stage materialistic philosophy is associated with the name of K. Marx
Philosophical idealism. Idealism - the development of the world is determined by the spiritual principle.
Heraclius (in the 6th century BC) believed that the cosmos is reasonable and that a person, in the process of breathing, becomes involved in it. The idea of the involvement of the rational principle in the secrets of the universe - a detailed expression for the first time received from Plato. His teaching was based on the opposition of two worlds6 of the "visible" world and the intelligible world (the world of ideas).
Objective idealism is a phylum of Plato, in the cat. the idea acts as the basis of the universe and the object of knowledge. Its achievements were enshrined in neoplatonism, which made the main category of the One (One). The founder of Neoplatonism, Plotinus, considers the One as an inexplicable and unchanging primal essence, inexpressible with the help of ordinary language. It is perfect and eternal, present in everything and at the same time different from each separately included in any set of things. "Every set is secondary in comparison with the one," says another classic of Neoplatonism, Proclus, in his treatise "The Fundamentals of Theology." Its proofs are simple and convincing: if a set does not contain unity (does not participate in it), then it is not a set either, since it breaks up into separate parts, and each part, not participating in any unity, repeats the fate of the "failed" set. Through intermediate formations, many things, partakers of the one, ascend to the highest unity - the Absolute. This one, called by Plotinus and followed by the Deity, being overflowing with its own perfection, gives rise to all the diversity of the world as a result of emanation (from Latin - outflow), carried out in three stages. Each subsequent stage of emanation is weaker in creative respect than the previous one. The emanation ends with the transition into matter, which in relation to the Divine (the One, the Good) is absolute deprivation, absolute poverty. Deprived of goodness, matter acts as a "primary health." Therefore, the highest goal of the soul is the return to the One. Philosophical teachings, developing in line with Platonism, are, as a rule, complex and comprehensive theoretical constructions, which, according to appearance may differ markedly from each other. So, in modern times, Leibniz created monadology - the doctrine of the primary simplest spiritual formations, or monads, containing the fullness of being and endowed with internal energy. Monads are autonomous "animated atoms". They form the world as a coordinated whole on the basis of harmony pre-established by the central monad - God, from which all other monads emanate. Aristotle puts forward an argument: if ideas, as the essence of things, are separated from things themselves, then they cannot be the cause of their existence, emergence and change. It cannot be said that Aristotle's criticism is exhaustive: in Platonism, as in any idealistic system, many judgments "are not amenable" to either sufficient argumentation or refutation. Therefore, the widest possibilities open up for philosophizing, even if it takes the path of fantasies and conjectures. Despite its obvious bottlenecks, Platonism had a huge impact on Christianity, and through it on many philosophical concepts, especially in Europe. This is historically the most early form idealism, which grew out of attempts to understand the nature of mental activity, spiritual life. But the ancient thought had already matured to the understanding that the relationship of human ideas to the surrounding world is to a large extent an independent problem that does not fit into the Platonic connection "thing - idea of a thing". The fact that our ideas about things do not coincide with the things themselves was subsequently used by idealism to strengthen its position and became the soil on which its other variety grew - subjective idealism. Its largest representative is the English philosopher D. Berkeley, who put forward in the early 18th century. famous thesis “to exist is to be perceived”. Subjective idealism- from his point of view, the objective world, independent of man, does not exist, it is nothing but the product of the subjective cognitive abilities of man, his sensations (Berkeley). Subjective idealists believe that it is impossible to go beyond consciousness. Berkeley believed that the world around a person is presented to him as the content of mental forms, he cannot go beyond the limits of the cat (later I. Kant developed this idea). However, he goes to extremes, essentially removing the question of the source of our sensations and perceptions, and in a broader context, of the source of knowledge in general. Obviously, the denial of the objective world, which lies outside the forms of contemplation, leads to ignoring its laws, the absolutization of the subjective world with all the ensuing consequences. Therefore, Berkeley's system of philosophy does not have as many supporters as objective idealism.
39. Materialism and idealism about the historical process. Formational and civilizational approaches to the knowledge of social life. Human society is the most difficult object for philosophical analysis. This is due to the huge variety of forms of social life. Only in the 18th century did thinkers appear who tried to find out the common principles uniting world history. So the Italian philosopher G. Vico put forward the theory of the historical cycle, in which he considered the cycles through which, in his opinion, all peoples pass. At the same time, many theories later appeared, which argued that there could not be a single history, a single universal culture, as O. Spengler, in particular, believed. The problem of the unity and diversity of world history for many years became that important issue, the solution of which depended on the choice of the path of social development of many peoples and countries. Its resolution was reflected in the formational and civilizational theories, where factors that determine the unity and diversity of social development were considered from different approaches.
The formational approach to history is focused on the knowledge and disclosure of the objective foundations of social life through the categories "mode of production", "basis", "superstructure", i.e. from the standpoint of natural-historical development. This makes it possible to solve a number of problems, which K. Marx did in his sociological theory and which became the property of textbooks on historical materialism, and, of course, enriched mankind's ideas about the materialistic foundations of the historical process. The idea of the progress of history on the basis of the progress of material production followed quite definitely from the formation theory. But the formational approach, highlighting the general in history, is distracted from the special in it, from the diversity in the life of various societies and peoples. The doctrine of formations developed by Marx focused on the socio-economic side of public life. Already Marx himself, at the same time, was faced with the fact that there are societies that do not fit into the doctrine of formations. In his works, we find such concepts as "ancient mode of production", "Asian mode of production", which fixed the presence of diversity in history that does not fit into the classical five-term.
The rethinking of the formational theory, taking into account the realities, served as the basis for the development of a civilizational approach to the knowledge of history. The essence of this approach is that any historically developing system consists of a specific social production technology and its corresponding culture, the essence of which lies in creative activity people and its results - both spiritual and material. Therefore, it would be more correct to speak not about a formation, but about a civilization characterized by everything that makes up the mentality of a given people. The civilizational approach focuses on the knowledge of history in all forms of people's life - social, spiritual, political. In other words, if from the point of view of the formational approach, history is known from the standpoint of the manifestation of objective laws, then the civilizational approach studies those specific conditions in which a person appears as a subject of history, where worldview ideas and spiritual factors play no less a role in the development of society than material ones. An example of the disclosure of the role of spiritual factors in history is Max Weber's study of the role of Protestantism in the formation and development of capitalism in Europe.
Both approaches play, so. important role in the knowledge of history. The absolutization of one of them will inevitably lead to the loss of landmarks in history, since only the unity and diversity of history gives an exhaustive picture of the world and allows peoples and politicians to make the right choice of the path of social development.
40. The problem of progress and its criteria in the socio-philosophical thought of the past and present. The theory of progress appears in the era of modern times and is characteristic of the theories of a single humanity. Prerequisites for the theory of progress (according to S. Bulgakov)
1. Humanity is moving in some given coordinates towards the final goal
2. The presence of a reasonable plan of history, at the same time vnur. for humanity and external. over human
3. Predictability of history (knowledge of laws, explanation of the progressive development of mankind) 4. The problem of an individual (his participation in the progress of mankind) Progress criteria: - moral development - the history of mankind is the formation of a morally developed, improving person - human rights and freedoms (T. Hobbes ) -enlightenment and education (XVIII in Voltaire, Diderot) -development of freedom (Hegel, Marx) -Scientific and technical development (Toffler, Bell) Global - these are the problems that affect all of humanity and must be solved by all of humanity Problems: ecology, terrorism, nuclear threat, human health and gene pool, culture Solutions: - the presence of a unified political will - financial and tax policy - new forms of economic economy - a new ideology - rejection of anthropocentrism - rejection of the technocratic approach to nature as a source of resources - rejection of economy with artificial cultivation of needs
41. Material production is the basis of social development. Dialectics of productive forces and production relations. In the real relationship of people to the world - to nature, to society, to other people - the initial incentives for the development of all forms of people are formed. culture. Created in culture - and in the material pr-ve, and in the regulation of relations between people in society, and, finally, in the field of science, art, philosophy - ways of activity arise in essence as a response to a certain. problems and tasks associated with the reproduction of people. existence in the neighborhood. person in the real world. Limited connection of human species. Socio-cultural. activities with practice in the system of culture lies in the fact that all these types of activities have access to practice, enrich its possibilities. The most important channel for influencing the practice of indirectly related types of societies. activity is their development with the help of the person himself, his abilities, directed by him in the course of a practically transformative action to the outside world. Structure. El-you of the labor process according to K. Marx: a person with his goals, knowledge and skills, operations carried out by a person are expedient. activities; objects included in the course of these operations in certain interactions. Objects are divided according to their f-pits into the object of labor, means of labor and products of labor. Labor as a transformation. man in the islands of nature involves the interaction of all these e-comrade. Forms: material production activity, practical-transformative activity, social practical. Activities (social, class struggle, revolutions, etc.), technical activities (science, scientific and technical progress, progress, etc.).
42. Philosophy of technology. Technique (from the Greek - "skill") is a set of means created for the implementation of production and servicing the non-productive needs of society. It appears by objectifying labor functions, experience and knowledge of people in the natural material. The main purpose of technology is the partial or complete replacement of human production functions in order to facilitate labor and increase its productivity. The technique is integral part productive forces of society, and in a certain sense serves as an indicator of the level of its development. It is customary to divide technology into passive and active. Passive technology includes production facilities and buildings, technical means of communication (railways, bridges, canals, pipelines, etc.), technical means of communication (radio, telephone, television), underground utilities, in a word, what is accepted now call the infrastructure of production. Active technology is tools (physical and mental), tools, mechanisms, machines, automatic lines, software controls, computers, etc. In historical terms, the creation of active technology precedes the appearance of passive technology. The history of technology can be divided into stages according to different criteria: the use of different natural materials (Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age, etc.); on the use of various types of energy (the age of steam, the age of electricity, etc.); by qualitatively different technologies. If we take the development of active technology as a basis, then three key stages are distinguished: tools and mechanisms of manual labor - machines - automatic machines and automatic lines. At the first stage, a person is the material basis of the technological process; on the second, the machine becomes this basis, and the person only supplements it as a technological element; on the third, a person is released from the technological chain. Next to pride in technological progress, anxiety arises and is increasingly disturbed by psychological and physical discomfort. It no longer occurs to a person to draw analogies between a technical monster and a temple; technology, is no longer in the same row with the latter, but in a polar opposite position. The divergence, which was barely visible before, is approaching its apogee. The power plant is in harmony with the plant, television tower, launch pad for launching rockets; nature and temples find themselves in the positions of still preserved islands of former harmony, giving rise to a nostalgic feeling. There are phrases that are unnatural in their essence: "industrial landscape", "industrial landscape", "second nature". A person begins to feel more and more depressed and vulnerable in this "nature" and against the background of this "landscape". What people created to protect and secure themselves, to make their lives more comfortable, turned into a threat and danger to their very existence. Awareness of these and similar problems led to the emergence of a new direction in philosophy, called the "philosophy of technology". This concept itself was introduced into scientific circulation at the end of the 19th century. in Germany. Philosophers working within this direction set themselves the task of studying the patterns, methodology and prospects for the development of technology, its social, moral, environmental, political and psychological aspects. In our time, the problems in the system "society - technology - nature" have obviously become aggravated, they have become literally screaming. Attempts to solve them historically developed in line with a certain confrontation between two main concepts - "engineering" and "humanitarian". Engineering philosophy of technology The system of views that received this name historically arose first. Some of its elements can already be seen in the works of I. Newton. Before showing the main ideas of the engineering philosophy of technology, we note that the word "engineering" does not mean that only engineers or all engineers think this way. This epithet should be taken only in the sense that if an engineer takes a break from his technical creativity for a while and begins to think more broadly about the meaning of his activity and about the connection between artifacts and man, then sooner or later he will come to the following thoughts. Technique is a means of liberating a person from direct labor activity through the projection of his organs onto this activity, through reproduction of himself in a qualitatively different form, through strengthening his organs in artifacts with their simultaneous functional impoverishment. Another direction in the development of this idea is the creation of artificial organs for medical purposes (artificial heart, lungs, kidneys, etc.), as well as the success of the field of robotics. The humanitarian philosophy of technology arose later than the engineering one. This direction of philosophical, methodological and ideological research into the phenomenon of technology took shape starting from the 60-70s. of our century, especially in the countries Western Europe, North America, and also in Japan. A program of this direction was formed, the essence of which is in the transition from a purely pragmatic, functional approach to technical devices to a complex, systemic, interdisciplinary analysis of technology as a complex, contradictory factor in modern civilization, which can be quite defined as a risk factor. The problem of alienation The concept of "alienation" has the following content. Any product human activity, whether it be a material object or an idea, threatens to turn into a danger to the person himself. Bringing him a certain benefit, however, sometimes seeming, this product, as it were, acquires an independent force and strives to get out of the control of its creators, who become dependent on it. The deep source of this alienation is not in the artifacts or theories themselves, which are most often neutral, but in the contradictory nature of man himself.
43. Philosophy of politics.- the science of the most general foundations, boundaries and possibilities of politics, the correlation in it of the objective and the subjective, the regular and the accidental, the real and the proper, the rational and the non-rational. The philosophy of politics dates back two and a half thousand years, but until the beginning of the 20th century its status was not determined. hardware manicure samara The role of the philosophy of politics was played by the philosophy of the state, the philosophy of law, and moral philosophy. There are two traditions in political philosophy. One traces its history from Aristotle, the other from N. Machiavelli. The first asks the question which political regime is authentic - corresponding to the nature of man, serving his good. The other focuses on the problems of the effectiveness of political systems and regimes. In the domestic literature there are several definitions of the essence of the philosophy of politics. samara anti-cellulite underwear "Philosophy of politics can be defined as the science of the most general foundations and possibilities of politics, of the correlations in it between the objective and the subjective, the regular and the accidental, the real and the proper, the rational and the non-rational"(Panarin A.S. Philosophy of politics. M., 1994. P.5.). Philosopher and political scientist V.D. Feng Shui amulets will give you peace and prosperity. Find out more on our website! Zotov figuratively noted that the problems of political philosophy revolve, as it were, between two poles. One pole is the objective reality of the state and power, which cannot be canceled at the will of the people. At the other extreme is the "political man" with his free will, moral principles, ideals, the whole system of values, indifference to which threatens society with disintegration (Essays on social philosophy. M., 1994. P. 83.). Thus, the philosophy of politics is interested in the cause-and-effect relations of politics and power, their social meaning, the embodiment of politics in material and ideal forms, the problem of the state and civil society, political consciousness, its relationship with morality, religion, art, etc. It can be noted that now the problem of self-determination is very important for the philosophy of politics. This is connected both with the fact that it is called upon to solve very serious problems of the development of society, and with the fact that these problems are now extremely complex. In our world of rationality, where, on the one hand, there are objective processes of differentiation of sciences (the division of one science into several new ones), and on the other hand, the formation of integral sciences takes place no less objectively, it is indeed very difficult to single out the subject of political philosophy and, undoubtedly, this the problem - the self-determination of political philosophy - will be relevant for a long time to come. nettops
It is obvious that the philosophy of politics primarily studies such categories as politics, the state, power, freedom, justice, equality. A.S. Panarin proposed to single out four parts in the philosophy of politics: 1) political ontology, 2) political anthropology, 3) political praxeology, 4) political epistemology (Panarin A.S. Decree. Op. C.5.). Remembering the meaning of the terms ontology (the doctrine of being), anthropology (the doctrine of man), praxeology (the doctrine of practice, action), epistemology (in the broad sense, the doctrine of knowledge), one can imagine what each of these parts of the philosophy of politics studies. Political ontology studies the existence of power, political time, political space; political anthropology - the place of man in politics, the political self-determination of man; political praxeology - political action; political epistemology - explanation and understanding in politics, etc. The philosophy of politics is also interesting because to this day it continues to rely on the great achievements of the philosophers of antiquity, while simultaneously developing them. Let us name some of these unfading provisions: politics is a social phenomenon that constitutes the essence, leading the beginning of the joint life of people, organized by the state (Aristotle); man is a political animal, his social and political nature are inseparable (Aristotle); a full participant in political life can only be a person who is free from prohibitions, prejudices, addictions (Plato); politics is a specific activity, art, creativity, spectacle (Plato). ancient philosophers and politicians began to study the specifics of the political language and political speech, the ethical categories of freedom, justice, the common good, the types of rulers and the characteristics of various political systems, political conflicts. The philosophy of politics in the Middle Ages was characterized by theocentrism, and social life was characterized by the formation of absolute monarchies, the opposition of secular and church authorities, hence the emergence of new ideas and new oppositions: the ruler - the people, Power - subordinates, the city - the world, freedom - duty and right, etc. e. New time - the period of the formation of industrial civilization, the complication of political processes, the growth of the class self-consciousness of the bourgeoisie - contributed to the emergence of discoveries that determine the political life of a civilized society today. Chief among them were civil society and the rule of law. In modern times, the conceptual foundations of the largest political ideologies: liberalism, individualism, conservatism, utopian and scientific socialism, anarchism, etc. recent history brought to mankind unprecedented samples of totalitarianism as a new type of political system, dehumanization and politicization of consciousness, mass political neuroses and psychoses. All this constituted the subject of study of political philosophy in the 20th century. Let us characterize the most significant ideas of philosophy in the field of politics - the idea of civil society and the idea rule of law.
44. Philosophical problems of the social sphere of society. The social sphere of society is a collection of individuals, their communities and relationships between them, a social structure. Anthroposociogenesis (Greek: man + society + origin) is the process of the origin of man and society, which includes both the physiological formation of man and the development of society.
The concept of the creation of man by God (man will be created by God in his own image). Therefore, an essential feature is its spiritual principle, which is designed to transform the animal (corporeal) principle. 2. Darwin's evolutionary theory - mechanisms evolutionary theory Variability, heredity and natural selection. 3. Engels' labor theory of the origin of man. A critical attitude towards evolutionary and labor theory has led to the emergence of other concepts that explain the origin of man. One of these concepts is the concept of the cosmic origin of man, according to which man appears as a creation of some reasonable principle. The cosmic mind is an analogy of God. In this context, it is possible to combine the two concepts. Heat stress hypothesis: the emergence of a person is associated not only with changes in his biological nature, but primarily with the formation of his social essence. From the standpoint of Marxism, the biological human principle has been transformed under the influence of social factors, so a person acts according to the instincts transformed under the influence of society.
According to Freud, a person has a biological essence, but under the influence of events that Freud characterizes as catastrophic, the animal herd turns into a human community, and biological instincts are suppressed by emerging moral norms. Instincts do not disappear, they are transformed (sublimated) into socially acceptable forms. In this regard, not labor as a material and production activity, but culture begins to be considered as a human-forming factor.
According to the German cultural philosopher Ernst Cassier, man is a symbolic animal; the creature that creates the symbol. Symbols are functional forms that make it possible to distinguish between reality (reality) and possibility. Symbols are products of human spiritual activity, appearing in various forms. From this point of view, within the framework of modern human studies, other interpretations of a person are put forward - a laughing person.
The concept of Johan Huizinga is the concept of a person playing. All forms of human cultural activity grow out of play activity.
In the 20th century, a synthetic theory of evolution was formed. She argues that the evolution of nature is a continuous process of accumulation of random features that lead to the emergence of a new species.
A person can be viewed from many angles. Man is a biosocial being, is the highest type of all living beings on earth, the subject of historical and cultural activity. Biological in a person - anatomical and physiological and genetic features (organism). Mental in man - internal spiritual world(conscious and unconscious, character, temperament, etc.). Social in a person - connections and relationships with other people, forms of people's activities (personality). Thus, a person is a part of the universe, a spiritual and material being with a mind, a subject of social relations and communication through articulate speech.
Biological approach - they try to prove that human relationships are built on biological relationships. Sociological approach - they try to prove that the main thing in a person is social qualities.
45. Spiritual life as a subject of philosophical research The spiritual life of society is that sphere of being in which the objective, supra-individual reality has been transformed into an individual, subjective reality, inherent in every person. The tradition of studying the "spirit" was founded by Plato, who understood philosophy itself as the doctrine of ideas. The ideal principle becomes primary in Plato, and the material - an imperfect likeness of the ideal. Modern Philosophy, although it is based on many of the conclusions of Plato, has stepped far ahead and now the following problems are relevant for it: what is the structure of the spiritual life of society, what are the main aspects of spirituality, what is spiritual production. The spiritual life of mankind passes under the influence of material and economic life, so its structure can be represented in a similar way. Spiritual life includes: spiritual need, spiritual interest, spiritual activity, spiritual benefits. Spiritual activity generates spiritual relations - moral, aesthetic, religious, political, legal, etc. The main aspects of spirituality: 1. Comprehensive nature of spirituality. The spiritual life of man is multifaceted. It includes both rational and emotional-affective aspects, epistemological-cognitive and value-motivational moments, conscious and vaguely felt facets, attitudes oriented to the external and internal world of a person, as well as many other aspects, levels, states of the spiritual life of a person. . Spirituality incorporates all these facets of human life. 2. Human spirituality as ideality. Ideality as a whole is characterized by the fact that the content of any phenomena of the world is internalized (assigned) by a person in its pure form, freed from the objective, material-objective or spatio-temporal characteristics of being. A huge role in the formation and development of ideality is played by language, the categorical-conceptual structure of human consciousness. Human spirituality is the ideal world in which a person lives, operating with ideal forms. 3. Spirituality as a subjective world of a person exists as an inner, intimate life of a person. It is given in the inner contemplation of a person, unfolds in his immanent ideal space and time. The spirituality of a person is entirely subjective, it represents the person's own "I", acts as a being, a feature of this "I". Spirituality is subjective and individual. Spirituality, thus, can be defined as the spiritual life of a person, his subjective-ideal world.
46. Personality as a subject and object of social life The concept of personality. Personality is one of the central concepts in sociology. The study of personality in sociology is markedly influenced by philosophical concepts and psychological theories. Philosophy operates more with a capacious concept of "man", which includes both biological, rational, and cultural nature. Philosophers talk about a person "in general", about his meaning of life, about his role in the Universe, etc. When philosophers say "personality", they most often mean "person". Personality - the general qualities of a person; an individual who has historically defined social qualities and implements them in his behavior and activities. Personality is always an active subject of social, material and spiritual activity.
Personality largely determines the nature of social life, the fate of society. She not only tries to organically merge into it, to fulfill all the social functions assigned to her, but also outlines the ways of human progress, material and spiritual, showing them to other people by her example.
Personality is a person, he exists outside of society. Society itself largely determines the fate of the individual. It refers to the individual as to all other people, without focusing on this. Another thing is that individuals who have great responsibilities (mostly moral ones) are more difficult to fulfill, but their fulfillment confirms a person as a person and contributes to his multilateral development.
As an object of social life, a person must also exist as a non-personality. But reconciliation with your existence, attempts of one's moral, spiritual (and to a lesser extent physical) improvement can allow the individual to become a subject of society. This development already allows us to say that this person became a person. Personality is an individual focus and expression of social relations and functions of people, the subject of knowledge and transformation of the world, rights and obligations, ethical, aesthetic and all other social. norms.
Personality is a person with self-consciousness and worldview, who has reached an understanding of his social. functions, its place in the world, understanding itself as a subject of historical creativity, as a link in the chain of generations, including related ones. Personality is an individual focus and expression of social relations and functions of people, the subject of knowledge and transformation of the world, rights and obligations, ethical, aesthetic and all other social. rules, including legal ones. The personal qualities of a chela are derived from two things: from his self-conscious mind and from his social way of life.
47. Human needs, interests, values and evaluations A need is a state of need of a person or animal in certain conditions, which they lack for normal existence and development.
It is always associated with a feeling of dissatisfaction. All living beings have needs, and this distinguishes living nature from non-living. The quantity and quality of needs depends on the level of organization of a living being. Plants have the least need. Human beings have the most varied needs. Types of needs. According to their origin, they are divided into natural and cultural. They, in turn, can be divided into a) physical b) organic c) material d) spiritual e) social.
The main characteristics of human needs are the strength, frequency of occurrence and method of satisfaction. An additional characteristic is the subject content of the need, i.e. a set of material and spiritual culture, with the help of which this need can be satisfied. The need has the ability to be reproduced.
The goal is that directly conscious result, which is currently directed by the action associated with the activity that satisfies the actual need. Psychologically, the goal is the content of consciousness, which is perceived by a person as the immediate and immediate expected result of his activity. All significant factors influence the process of formation of values and value perception human being- biological, social, mental, etc. The combination of individual values determines the personal nature of a person's values, however, he does not deny the existence of universal human values. One should not think that universal human values exist along with individual values. Universal human values are at the same time individual, personal values. And each person perceives and realizes them in his own way. On the basis of human needs and social relations, people's interests arise, which directly determine a person's interest in something. Each person lives in a certain system of values, the objects and phenomena of which are designed to satisfy his needs. AT in a certain sense we can say that the value expresses the mode of existence of the individual, and different values have for her different meaning, and associated with this is a hierarchy of values. Personal values accumulate in the system value orientations. Value orientations are understood as a set of important qualities of the personality structure, which are especially significant for it. These value orientations form a certain basis for the consciousness and behavior of the individual and directly affect its development. Personal socialization is the assimilation of social experience due to the social activity of the individual. In this sense, it coincides with the development of personality. Ideals, norms, means and goals, acting as the values of the individual, form a system of its value orientations, the core of its consciousness and become a source that encourages action and deeds. In literature, there are different ways and principles of classification and hierarchy of values. So, they distinguish values-goals, or higher (absolute) values, and values-means (instrumental values). They talk about positive and negative values, bearing in mind their social significance and the consequences of their implementation. It is possible to single out material and spiritual values, etc. It is important to emphasize that all of them are closely interconnected and united and form the integrity of the world of each person.
However, despite the various forms of differentiation of values and their relative nature, there is the highest and absolute value - this is the person himself, his life. This value should be considered only as a value-goal, and it should never be treated as a value-means, which I. Kant so confidently wrote about. Man is a value in itself, an absolute value. The same value is made up of social communities and society as a whole, which are also subjects of values. The basis of this lies in the social essence of man and the resulting dialectic of society and personality. In addition, the highest values should include such “ultimate” and most common values for people as the meaning of life, goodness, justice, beauty, truth, freedom, etc.
48. Freedom as a problem of philosophy. The problem of freedom in philosophy is comprehended, as a rule, in relation to a person and his behavior (freedom in nature was comprehended as an accident, as an "unknown necessity"). It was developed in such philosophical problems as the freedom of will and responsibility of a person, opportunities to be free, understanding of freedom as a force that regulates social relations. None philosophical problem probably did not have such a great social and political resonance in the history of society as the problem of freedom. For an individual, the possession of freedom is a historical, social and moral imperative (command), a criterion of his individuality and the level of development of society. Arbitrary restriction of the freedom of the individual, strict regulation of his consciousness and behavior, reduction of a person to the birth of a simple "tool" in social and technological systems is detrimental to both the individual and society. Ultimately, it is thanks to the freedom of the individual that society acquires the ability not only to adapt to the existing natural and social circumstances of the surrounding reality, but also to transform them in accordance with its goals. The specific material carrier of freedom, its subject is always the individual, and, accordingly, the communities in which it is included - nations, social groups, classes. In the history of philosophy, freedom has traditionally been considered in its relationship with necessity. Necessity itself was perceived, as a rule, in the form of fate, fate, predestination, commanding the actions of a person and denying the freedom of his will. Perhaps the most expressive embodiment of this understanding of necessity found in the Latin proverb - "fate directs the one who accepts it, and drags the one who resists it." The opposition of the concepts of "freedom" and "necessity" as philosophical antinomies, the denial or substitution of one of them for another for more than two millennia has been a stumbling block for thinkers who have not found a satisfactory solution to the problem. "The old, but eternally new question of freedom and necessity arose before the idealists of the 19th century, as it arose before the metaphysicians of the previous century, as it resolutely arose before all philosophers who asked questions about the relationship of being to thinking" (Plekhanov). Philosophical solution to the problem of freedom and necessity, their correlation in the activities and behavior of the individual is of great practical importance for assessing all the actions of people. Neither morality nor law can circumvent this problem, because without the recognition of the freedom of the individual, there can be no question of his moral and legal responsibility for his actions. If people do not have freedom, but act only out of necessity, then the question of their responsibility for their behavior loses its meaning, and "retribution according to merit" turns either into arbitrariness or into a lottery. The solution of the antinomy "freedom or necessity" in the history of philosophy depended on of which of the directions certain philosophers gravitated to - to essentialism (from lat. essentia - essence) or existentialism (from lat. existentia - existence), that is, from what was primary, initial for them - essence or existence. For those who adhered to the first direction, freedom was only a manifestation, a concrete embodiment of necessity with occasional deviations from it; those who adhered to the second direction considered freedom as the primary reality human life while necessity was treated as an abstract concept. In existence, a person acquires essence; before existence, there is no higher nature (man is a possibility) and predestination (predestination) of a person. Freedom of choice is equally central to social progress, which natural selection occupies in biological evolution, namely: both of them play the role of the main driving factor in progressive development, only in the first case - society, in the second - living nature. At the same time, there is an important, fundamental difference in the mechanism of their action: in the process of natural selection, the biological individual is the object of the laws of evolution, the survival of organisms most adapted to the environment, while freedom of choice implies that the social individual, the personality, acts as the subject of the social process, perceiving achievements of the material and spiritual culture of mankind. In the course of natural selection, the biological advantages of individuals are transferred only to their immediate descendants. Thanks to the freedom of choice, the achievements of individuals in various fields of activity - the accumulation of knowledge, invention, practical experience, moral and spiritual values - can potentially be perceived by all people who have access to them.
49. Global problems: essence, classification, solutions. Global problems are the most important planetary problems of the modern era, affecting humanity as a whole. This is a collection of such acute life problems on the solution of which the further social progress of mankind depends, and which, in turn, can be solved only thanks to this progress. Signs of global problems: global scale of manifestations that go beyond the boundaries of one state; severity of manifestation; complex character; general human essence making them understandable and relevant for all countries and peoples; the peculiarity of predetermining in certain aspects the course of the further history of mankind; the possibility of their prevention, elimination and elimination of consequences by the efforts of the entire world community; caused mainly by anthropogenic causes; the threat is directed against man as a biological being. Classification of global problems: environmental, economic, social, political, spiritual. Global problems: prevention of thermonuclear war, creation of a non-nuclear non-violent world that provides peaceful conditions for the social progress of all peoples based on the consensus of their vital interests, mutual trust and universal solidarity; overcoming the growing gap in the level of economic and cultural development between the developed industrial countries of the West and the developing countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America, eliminating economic backwardness throughout the world, eliminating hunger, poverty and illiteracy, in which many hundreds of millions of people are now plunged; ensuring the further economic development of mankind with the natural resources necessary for this, both renewable and non-renewable, including food, raw materials and energy sources; overcoming the ecological crisis generated by the catastrophic intrusion of man into the biosphere, accompanied by pollution of the natural environment with industrial and agricultural waste; stopping rapid population growth ("demographic explosion") in developing countries, as well as overcoming the demographic crisis in economically developed countries, timely foreseeing and preventing various negative consequences of the scientific and technological revolution and rational, effective use of its achievements for the benefit of society and the individual.
50. The future of mankind: prospects, forecasts. Methods of forecasting and criteria for their reliability. Forecasting methods Futures research uses a vast and diverse arsenal of scientific methods , special techniques, logical technical means of knowledge. The Austrian futurist Erich Jancz has about 200 of them, and his list is not exhaustive. However, the main methods of social forecasting come down to the following five (the rest are their various combinations and variations): 1) extrapolation; 2) historical analogy; 3) computer simulation; 4) future scenarios; 5) expert assessments. Each of these methods of anticipating the future has its advantages and disadvantages. The accuracy of extrapolation, for example, decreases sharply as one moves into the future, which cannot possibly be a simple quantitative continuation of the present. The applicability of historical analogy to foresight of the future is very limited, because the future of mankind cannot in its main features be reduced to a repetition of the past. The most reliable method of social forecasting remains an expert assessment of the prospects for a real historical process, provided that it is based on correct theoretical ideas about it, uses results obtained using other methods, and gives these results the correct interpretation. Anticipation of the future inevitably somehow affects the consciousness and behavior of people in the present. Depending on the descriptions of the future contained in social forecasts, they induce a person to either actively strive for it, or counteract its onset, or passively expect it. Therefore, any social forecast combines both scientific and cognitive content and a certain ideological purpose. And in this fusion of two functions - cognitive and ideological - both the first and the second can prevail. Based on the content and purpose of various forecasts, four main types (types) can be distinguished: 1) search; 2) regulatory; 3) analytical; 4) warning forecasts. Exploratory forecasts (sometimes called "exploratory" or "realistic") are made directly in order to reveal what the future may be, starting from realistic assessments of current development trends in various areas of social activity. Normative forecasts, focused on achieving certain goals in the future, contain various practical recommendations for the implementation of relevant development plans and programs. Analytical forecasts, as a rule, are made in order to determine the cognitive value of various methods and means of studying the future for scientific purposes. Forecasts-warnings are made to directly influence the consciousness and behavior of people in order to force them to prevent the expected future. Of course, the differences between these main types of forecasts are arbitrary; in the same social forecast, signs of several types can be combined.
social philosophy ideological prognostic
First of all, let us point out the main meanings of the concept "social". In modern philosophical and sociological literature, this concept is used in the narrow and broad senses.
In a narrow sense, "social" means the existence of a special area of social phenomena that make up the content of the so-called social sphere of society, in which its own range of problems is solved that affects the relevant interests of people. These problems relate to the social position of people, their place in the system of social division of labor, the conditions of their work, movement from one social group to another, their standard of living, education, health care, social security, etc. All these problems within the social sphere are solved on the basis of the specific social relations that are taking shape here, also understood in a narrow sense. Their specific content is determined by the content of these problems, about which they arise. In this they differ, say, from economic, political, moral, legal and other social relations.
In a broad sense, the concept of "social" is used in the sense of "public" as a synonym for this concept, coinciding with it in scope and content. In this case, the concept of "social" ("public") means everything that happens in society, in contrast to what happens in nature. In other words, it denotes the specificity of the social in relation to the natural, natural, biological. In a broad sense, the concept of "social" is also used as the opposite of the individual. In this case, it means that which refers to social groups or to the whole society, in contrast to what concerns the individual qualities of an individual.
The social function of philosophy is quite multifaceted in its content and covers various aspects of social life: philosophy is called upon to perform a dual task - to explain social existence and contribute to its material and spiritual change. At the same time, it should be remembered that social changes, experiments and reforms are of particular value and importance in public life. Therefore, before trying to change the social world, you must first explain it well. It is philosophy that has the prerogative in developing comprehensive concepts of the integration and consolidation of human society. Its task is to help to understand and formulate collective goals and direct efforts to organize collective actions to achieve them. At the same time, the degree of vitality of a philosophical concept is determined by the extent to which each individual can understand and accept it. Therefore, despite its comprehensive nature, philosophy must be addressed to every person.
Social philosophy recreates a holistic picture of the development of society. In this regard, it solves many "general questions" concerning the nature and essence of a particular society, the interaction of its main spheres and social institutions, the driving forces of the historical process, and so on. These questions are constantly faced in the study of their problems by various social sciences: history, political economy, sociology, political science, social psychology, law, ethics, etc.
Appeal to the provisions of social philosophy helps representatives of these sciences to find solutions to their specific problems. This means that social philosophy plays the role of the methodology of the social sciences, in a certain way directs their studies of the relevant aspects of social life, and forms approaches and principles for their study. This is possible because it helps representatives of the social sciences to comprehend the place in society of the phenomena they study, their connections with other social phenomena, the combination of regularities and accidents in their development, and so on.
The effectiveness of this assistance depends primarily on the content of social philosophy, the degree of its penetration into the essence of a particular society, the processes taking place in it. It is the depth and breadth of her judgments and conceptual propositions, the heuristic nature of many of them, i.e. their inherent ability to comprehend the secrets of social phenomena and their complex interactions determine the theoretical and methodological significance of social philosophy. This significance of it is revealed when its provisions are used in solving the relevant problems of science and practice.
The task of social philosophy is not at all to reflect in detail all the phenomena and processes of social life. The life of society is extremely rich in various events. It is very complex with diverse connections between social phenomena that are dynamic and contradictory. No science is able to express all the richness and complexity of social life. Nor does social philosophy set itself such a goal. However, by recreating one or another ideal model of the development of society and its individual aspects, social philosophy helps to understand the essence of various social phenomena, their place and role in society, reveals the most significant direct and feedback links between these phenomena as elements of the social system. Ultimately, it reproduces a holistic picture of the existence of society, reveals the main mechanisms of interaction between its parties, the trends and patterns of its development.
This expresses the main content of the concepts of many traditional and modern trends and schools of social philosophy. It is desirable, of course, that the content of the concepts of social philosophy reflect real social processes as deeply as possible, which would contribute to their deeper understanding. This is important not only for science, but also for practice, more precisely, for the scientific substantiation of the practical activities of people.
The need for this is constantly reminded of itself. It is important that the development of society should not proceed by itself, but be more purposeful and carried out in the interests of all people. And for this it is necessary, in particular, that their activity be as less spontaneous as possible and as conscious as possible, meaningful by them at the level of understanding the problems of the whole society. This is especially important for the activities of state bodies, which are called upon to purposefully organize practical solutions to social problems and thereby find optimal ways for the development of society. All over the world, people strive to solve the problems of their social life more meaningfully, taking into account not only momentary, but also long-term interests, on which the solution of their personal problems also depends. It is important that they are clearly aware of both the immediate and long-term consequences of their activities and could change it in their own interests.
Appropriate ideological and methodological provisions of social philosophy can help with this. Revealing the social significance of various forms of activity and their role for the self-affirmation of a person in society, showing the nature of society itself, the dynamics and direction of its development, social philosophy helps people to realize the immediate and long-term consequences of their actions for themselves and other people, social groups and perhaps for the whole society. This is one of the manifestations of the prognostic function of social philosophy, which often helps to foresee trends in the development of social processes and consciously predict them.
So, we can talk about the ideological, theoretical, methodological and prognostic functions of social philosophy. Its ideological function lies in the fact that it forms a person’s general view of the social world, the existence and development of society, in a certain way solves questions about the relationship between people’s being, the material conditions of their life and their consciousness, about the place and purpose of a person in society, goals and the meaning of his life, etc. All these problems are posed and solved within the framework of various schools of materialistic, idealistic and religious philosophy.
The theoretical function of social philosophy is that it allows you to penetrate into the depths of social processes and judge them at the level of theory, i.e. systems of views about their essence, content and direction of development. At this theoretical level, we can talk about trends and regularities in the development of social phenomena and society as a whole.
Connected with all this is the methodological function of social philosophy, which consists in the application of its provisions in the study of individual phenomena and processes of social life studied by various social sciences. In this case, the provisions of social philosophy play the role of methodology in research carried out in the field of historical, sociological, legal, economic, psychological and other sciences.
Finally, the prognostic function of social philosophy lies in the fact that its provisions contribute to foreseeing the development trends of society, its individual aspects, the possible immediate and long-term consequences of human activity, the content of which, in fact, determines the content of social development. On the basis of such foresight, it becomes possible to build forecasts for the development of certain social phenomena and the whole society.
These functions of social philosophy are manifested in the development of the consciousness of each person, if he masters the philosophical worldview, the theory and methodology of philosophical thinking. In this case, he acquires the ability to think systematically, dialectically, to consider social phenomena in their interaction, change and development. As a result, a certain methodological discipline of thinking is formed, making it strictly logical and clear, which is an indicator of the culture of thinking.
All this does not exclude, but rather implies the development of a person's ability to think creatively, non-standard, overcoming various stereotypes, one-sidedness and dogmatism, to think in close connection with life, reproducing all its complexity and inconsistency. Logical creative thinking becomes an effective means of understanding social phenomena and solving practical problems of the life of people and the whole society.
At present, in the analysis of the phenomena of social life, so-called concrete sociological studies are used. They are resorted to in the study of economic, social, political and other phenomena and processes. In other words, their application can be universal, as is the application of the provisions of social philosophy. At the same time, there are significant differences between them. The main one is that social philosophy is able to comprehend the processes taking place in society more deeply, more clearly understand the internal logic of their development and the diverse forms of their manifestation, than the data of specific sociological studies, taken by themselves, allow, which most often contain information only about external side of social phenomena and processes. In addition, the results of specific sociological studies themselves, which receive a systematic justification within the framework of social philosophy, can be more deeply interpreted.
At the same time, if social philosophy really adheres to scientific foundations in the analysis and explanation of the processes taking place in society, it proceeds from the corresponding principles. These include:
approach to society as an integral social system, all elements of which are interconnected and interdependent; at the same time, special importance is attached to cause-and-effect and regular relationships, the analysis of which is the main content of social determinism as a theoretical and methodological principle for studying social phenomena, orienting on a comprehensive account of the cause-and-effect and regular relationships and relationships existing between them;
consideration of all social phenomena and processes in their constant dynamics, i.e. in motion, change and development; this is the principle of historicism, requiring the analysis of any social phenomena in a historically developing social context, i.e. in the system of their developing and changing relations with other social phenomena, together with which and under the influence of which these phenomena develop. This means that when analyzing social phenomena, one cannot artificially tear them out of their historical context, i.e. the system of circumstances in which their development took place or is taking place, so as not to get superficial, and even false conclusions about their essence and social significance;
finding and analysis of those social contradictions that determine the essence and source of development of these social phenomena and processes:
consideration of the latter in their historical continuity, taking into account what is really outdated and now plays a conservative, and even openly reactionary role, and what continues to live, retains its significance and enables society to develop along the path of civilization and progress;
These are, in brief, the provisions of social philosophy that characterize its subject matter, functions and principles of the study of social phenomena, as well as its theoretical and methodological significance for other social sciences that study various aspects of society, for analyzing the practical activities of people and their social relations.
The functions of social philosophy must be considered in relation to the society in which it exists and to the student who studies it: these functions are close, but not identical.
The main functions of social philosophy:
- Cognitive
- Diagnostic
- predictive
- educational
- projective
The most important function of social philosophy is, first of all, cognitive. It consists in studying the relationship between social consciousness and social being, in developing a socio-philosophical theory that society needs. This work is carried out by social philosophers. The development of a theory includes the definition of the main categories and concepts of social philosophy, such as society, the formation of society, the economy, civilization, etc., as well as bringing them into a certain system built on the basis of some principles.
In countries of Eastern Europe and Russia is undergoing a transition from developed (Soviet) socialism to democratic capitalism. This transition is contrary to Marxism-Leninism and its socio-philosophical component - historical materialism. Russian and foreign philosophers are faced with the task of filling the socio-philosophical vacuum that arose after the collapse of historical materialism. Peter Kozlowski suggests filling it with personalism. We are trying to develop a social philosophy of historical realism.
Diagnostic the function of social philosophy is to analyze society from the point of view of its current (crisis) state, assess development options, their causes, methods and plans. Russia is a transitional society, in such periods the role of politics (and politicians) is great, which is the sphere of provoking and resolving conflicts. Such conflicts, on the one hand, are the source of Russia's development, and on the other hand, they are accompanied by material, psychological and human losses, many of which can be avoided with the skillful management of social conflicts.
The diagnostic function of social philosophy makes it possible to analyze the causes of conflicts in various spheres of society, understand their causes and outline a socio-philosophical way to resolve them.
predictive the function of social philosophy is expressed in the development of reasonable forecasts about the trends in the development of societies and mankind, social contradictions and conflict processes in the future. This involves an analysis of the trends in the development of the main social subjects (formations of society, social communities, institutions, organizations), the dynamics of interests, etc. Such an opportunity is given by the realization of the cognitive and diagnostic functions of social philosophy. The result of the prognostic function is a forecast that sets out possible (real and formal) scenarios for the development of a given society and humanity.
These scenarios include sound societal development goals and real ways their implementation. Possible scenarios for the development of society and humanity can only be developed on the basis of existing socio-philosophical principles. The socio-philosophical approach to the development of scenarios for the development of society differs from the pragmatic approach currently prevailing in our country, which presents a reaction to historical challenges from the point of view of momentary interests, leads to the fact that we swim with the flow of events, instead of swimming towards some morally justified goal. Events take over us and our principles if we do not use them.
educational the function of social philosophy is expressed in the study of its students, leaders, politicians. Knowledge of the foundations of social philosophy makes it possible to use it to prevent and resolve conflicts, to understand the main trends in the development of society and humanity. The lack of education of many people in the field of social philosophy is one of the reasons for ill-conceived and hasty decisions, utopian projects, such as communist, destructive and diverse conflicts that shake our country. For a long time, the attitude towards conflict with alleged enemies was introduced into the minds of Soviet people: capitalists, bourgeois, businessmen, speculators, etc. Now we have to learn tolerance (tolerance) for opposing opinions and actions.
projective the function of social philosophy is to develop a project for the transformation of reality in the interests of some social community (group, class, stratum, nation). This transformation may concern a change in a social institution, state, formation, civilization, and include the goal, subjects, means, timing, pace of transformation (for example, the Marxist-Leninist project for the socialist reorganization of Russia). In this case, social philosophy acquires an ideological character, plays the role of an acquittal authority for some political decisions.
We believe, - correctly asserts V.A. Tishkov, that the 20th century was largely created by intellectuals, not only in the form of explanations of what was happening, but also in the form of instructions on what and how to do. And in this sense, we are talking not just about the responsibility of the historian, but also about the authority of the historian in history, and therefore about the benefits or harms of his actions. The past century, especially domestic history, provides more than enough grounds for such a view.
Society, represented by its ruling elite and intelligentsia, always turns to social philosophy when it is in a crisis, when the way out of it is not clear to it, when new ideas and means of their implementation are required. The world is now in such a position on the threshold of a post-industrial civilization in the conditions of an ecological crisis, and Russia is in the conditions of abandoning the proletarian socialist system that has become obsolete.
The problem of choosing the Russian path is the most difficult problem: it is due to the crisis of the Soviet formation of industrialism.
The failure of neoliberal reforms in post-Soviet Russia is a failure, above all, of a socio-philosophical choice. Overcoming this limitation on the paths of the social philosophy of realism is the most important condition for Russia's exit from the crisis.
The history of philosophy has more than two and a half millennia. During this time, many definitions of philosophy have accumulated, but disputes about what it is - a worldview, science, ideology, art still do not subside. Everyone knows colloquial, everyday definitions of philosophy:
- 1) philosophy is established beliefs on about something(eg life philosophy, student philosophy);
- 2) abstract, general, not related to cause reasoning(for example, to breed philosophy).
One of the most common definitions of philosophy, which was adopted in the USSR for several decades, proceeded from the thesis of K. Marx about the need to create a new philosophical science, armed with modern, accurate methods for studying being, society and man: philosophy is the science about most general laws development nature, human societies and thinking.
Philosophy is often understood as someone's doctrine about world(for example, ancient philosophy, Hegel's philosophy, etc.)
The term "philosophy" is often referred to as methodological principles lying in basis any science, areas knowledge(e.g. philosophy of history, philosophy of mathematics, etc.)
It is even more difficult to define social philosophy, since this field of knowledge directly affects the interests of people, their understanding of the world and themselves in this world. Social philosophy originates in Antiquity. Its appearance is associated with the names of Socrates and Plato, who first set the task of philosophical understanding of society and its individual areas.
As for the philosophy of history, its beginning in Europe was laid by Augustine Aurelius (4th century AD) with his famous work "On the City of God". The Augustinian interpretation of the historical process dominated European philosophy until the 18th century. But the formation of social philosophy as a separate branch of knowledge dates back to the middle of the 19th century. At this time, the formation of sociology and psychology takes place. Scientists are abandoning "speculative", based only on reflection, rational knowledge of the world in favor of experimental, rational knowledge. They highlight the active role of a person who masters the secrets of the universe not with the help of metaphysical, divorced from real life mental constructions, but due to exact scientific methods.
The century and a half that have passed since then have not brought clarity to the problem of the essence of both philosophy in general and social philosophy in particular. And to this day in the literature there is no unity in the definition of social philosophy and its subject. Moreover, in scientific world there is not even a single understanding of one of the main categories - "social" - although the object of social philosophy is social life and social processes.
In the literature, the term social" is used in different senses. Perhaps the most commonly used definition is that given by P.A. Sorokin, according to many, the most prominent sociologist of the first half of the twentieth century. " social phenomenon there is world concepts world logical (scientific - in strict sense this words) being, resulting in process interactions (collective experience) human individuals", - wrote this American scientist (Sorokin P.A. Man. Civilization. Society. M., 1992. S. 527.).
Consider definitions social philosophy. One of the most famous definitions is the following: Social philosophy called upon reply on the question about volume, how generally Maybe conscious streamlining people their relations in society, what kind opened and open before them in various historical era way and funds construction social relations, which character wore and wear here objective barriers, getting up before people how these restrictions are realized people and appear in practice, how much adequately this problem reflected philosophical systems and ideological designs of the past and present"(Essays on social philosophy. M., 1994. P.3.).
We will not analyze such a complex definition (interpretation of the word), apparently, it can be quite useful for a theoretical scientist, but we will try to find a simpler definition: "Social philosophy is a system scientific knowledge about the most general regularities and tendencies of the interaction of social phenomena, the functioning and development of society, the integral process of social life "(Social Philosophy. M., 1995. P. 13-14.).
The author of another definition is the famous Russian scientist V.S. Barulin. He believes that the " social philosophy studies laws, according to which in society add up sustainable, large groups of people, relations between these groups, them connections and role in society"(Barulin V.S. Social Philosophy. Ch.1.M., 1993. P.90.)
The student can use any of the above definitions. He may also try to synthesize them in some way, or even try to construct his own definition. But for this you need to know that the diversity and difference in the definitions of social philosophy is largely due to the fact that the problem-subject status of social philosophy is still not clear. The reasons for this are varied. The nihilistic (denying completely all past achievements) break with the "Histmatic" past is having an effect. Influenced by the assertion since the mid-80s of "pluralism of thoughts, not knowledge." Difficulties in the development of modern Western literature are also having an effect.
Let's dwell on the last reason in more detail. For several decades, even Soviet professional philosophers, not to mention those who studied philosophy in higher educational institutions or was simply interested in it, were deprived of the opportunity to communicate with foreign non-Marxist colleagues and read foreign philosophical literature. The consequence of this, among other things, was that since the late 1980s, the book market has brought down on readers such a volume of previously unknown literature that was simply difficult to master. But it's not only that. Much of what was already the history of philosophy abroad has become fashionable in Russia.
If in the West the term "social philosophy" became very common in the middle of the 20th century, in Russia it was only in the 1990s. In fairness, it should be noted that in the West there is no consensus on the essence of social philosophy. Thus, a textbook for Oxford students (Graham G. Modern social philosophy. Oxford, 1988.) contains sections on the essence of society, personality, social justice, social equality and its maintenance, health care, moral standards and law. Another textbook published in Darmstadt (Forshner M. Man and Society: Basic Concepts of Social Philosophy. Darmstadt, 1989) examines the concepts of society, the idea of human free will and responsibility, problems of punishment, power, political systems, theories of just wars, etc. . This list goes on.
It should be noted that the approaches of domestic authors are also different and all of them have the right to exist, since they are not alternative, but only complement each other, considering the complex social world from different sides of the philosophical worldview.
What role does social philosophy play in society? Before answering this question, let us recall functions philosophy: after all, to a large extent they are common to social philosophy.
- 1) function extrapolation universals(identification of the most general ideas, ideas, concepts on which the socio-historical life of people is based);
- 2) function rationalization and systematization(translation into a logical and theoretical form of the total results of human experience in all its varieties: practical, cognitive, value);
- 3) critical function ( criticism of the dogmatic way of thinking and cognition, delusions, prejudices, mistakes);
- 4) function formation theoretical generalized image peace on the certain steps development societies.
Speaking about the specifics of social philosophy, special attention should be paid to the following functions:
- 1) epistemological function(research and explanation of the most general patterns and trends in the development of society as a whole, as well as social processes at the level of large social groups);
- 2) methodological function(social philosophy acts as a general doctrine of the methods of cognition of social phenomena, the most general approaches to their study);
- 3) integration and synthesis social knowledge(establishment of universal ties of social life);
- 4) predictive function social philosophy (creating hypotheses about general trends in the development of social life and man);
- 5) ideological function(unlike other historical forms worldview - mythology and religion - social philosophy is associated with a conceptual, abstract-theoretical explanation of the social world);
- 6) axiological or value function(any socio-philosophical concept contains an assessment of the object under study;
- 7) social function(in the broadest sense, social philosophy is called upon to perform a dual task - to explain social being and contribute to its material and spiritual change);
- 8) humanitarian function(social philosophy should contribute to the formation of humanistic values and ideals, the affirmation of the positive goal of life).
Functions social philosophy dialectically interconnected. Each of them presupposes the others and in one way or another includes them in its content. Thus, it is obvious that the socio-philosophical study of social processes will be the more successful, the more carefully attention is paid to each of the functions of philosophy.
The famous philosopher K.Kh. Momdzhyan rightly notes that, unlike the specific sciences, each of which develops its own "plot", philosophy has the audacity to try to comprehend the world in its totality, universality, universality. This totality is revealed by her in two interconnected aspects, which can be conditionally called "substantial" and "functional". AT first case speech goes about search significant and nonrandom similarities between subsystems holistic world (example whom maybe serve them subordination universal principles causal-functional communications, on the existence which insist concepts philosophical determinism). In second case speech goes about attempts explanations similar similarities through disclosure significant and nonrandom connections, real mediations between correlative "kingdoms being"(Momdzhyan K.Kh. Society. Society. History. M., 1994. P.68.).
Thus, the main task of social philosophy is to reveal the essence of society, to characterize it as a part of the world, different from its other parts, but connected with them into a single world universe.
At the same time, social philosophy acts as a special theory, which has its own categories, laws and principles of research.
social philosophy knowledge society
Due to the large degree of generality of its provisions, laws and principles, social philosophy also acts as a methodology for other social sciences.
