The subject of philosophy and its structure. The subject and functions of philosophy
philosophy thinking conscious science
The structure of philosophy as a science
When studying philosophy, there are usually 4 main sections:
- 1. Ontology (from the Greek ontos - that which exists and logos - word, speech) is the doctrine of being, the foundations of existence. Its task is to investigate the most general and fundamental problems of being.
- 2. Epistemology (from Greek gnosis - knowledge, knowledge and logos - word, speech) or another name epistemology (from Greek episteme - scientific knowledge, science, reliable knowledge, logos - word, speech) is a doctrine about the ways and possibilities of knowing the world. This section examines the mechanisms by which a person learns the world.
- 3. Social philosophy is the doctrine of society. It has as its task the study of social life. Since the life of any individual depends on social conditions, social philosophy studies, first of all, those social structures and mechanisms that determine these conditions. The ultimate goal of social cognition is to improve society, the order in it, to create the most favorable conditions for the self-realization of the individual. In order to achieve this goal, it is necessary to identify the driving forces community development, i.e. the laws of the functioning of society, the causes of certain social phenomena that we observe. The more deeply we know the relationships and laws existing in society, the more subtly we are able to improve social structures and mechanisms that contribute to the prosperity of society.
- 4. The history of philosophy is a section devoted to the history of philosophical teachings, the evolution of philosophical thought, as well as science with the corresponding subject of study. The history of philosophy is important because it shows not only the end result of modern knowledge, but also the thorny path that mankind has overcome in search of truth, and hence all the difficulties and obstacles that arose along this path. Only by following this path can one understand the full depth of modern truths and avoid repeating the typical mistakes of the past.
Each philosophy valuable in that it carries a grain, a piece of truth of greater or lesser significance. As a rule, each subsequent teaching is based on the knowledge and thoughts contained in the previous ones, is their analysis and generalization, sometimes work on their mistakes. And even being erroneous, the teaching makes its valuable contribution on the way to the truth, allows you to realize this error. Therefore, without tracing the course of development of thought from its very origins, it can be difficult to understand the final result of knowledge, the full value and depth of modern truths. It is possible, among other things, that modern life there is a growing disregard for philosophical truths. Some of us do not understand their value, do not understand why they are what they are, while it would be more convenient for them to understand and perceive differently. Before we are convinced of the truth of this or that knowledge, we sometimes need to fill a lot of "bumps" in life. The history of philosophy is the experience of mistakes, the experience of the ups and downs of thought from the most outstanding thinkers. Their experience is invaluable to us. In the history of philosophy, we can trace the evolution of the solution to almost any problem. In the course of philosophy studied in universities, the most important of them are considered. However, the history of philosophical thought is not limited to the range of topics that textbooks can accommodate. That is why, when studying it, it is so important to turn to primary sources. A course in the history of philosophy is only a brief description of real teachings, the full depth and diversity of which is hardly possible to convey in this course.
Philosophical disciplines The names of most branches of philosophy (social philosophy, history of philosophy and epistemology) coincide with the names of the corresponding philosophical disciplines that study them. Therefore, they are not re-named here.
Since philosophy studies almost all areas of knowledge, within the framework of philosophy there was a specialization in certain disciplines, limited to the study of these areas:
- 1. Ethics - a philosophical study of morality and morality.
- 2. Aesthetics - a philosophical doctrine of the essence and forms of beauty in art, in nature and in life, about art as a special form of social consciousness.
- 3. Logic - the science of the forms of correct reasoning.
- 4. Axiology - the doctrine of values. He studies issues related to the nature of values, their place in reality and the structure of the value world, i.e., the relationship of various values with each other, with social and cultural factors and the structure of the individual.
- 5. Praxeology - the doctrine of human activity about the realization of human values in real life. Praxeology considers various actions in terms of their effectiveness.
- 6. Philosophy of religion - the doctrine of the essence of religion, its origin, forms and meaning. It contains attempts at philosophical justifications for the existence of God, as well as discussions about his nature and relation to the world and man.
- 7. Philosophical anthropology - the doctrine of man, his essence and ways of interacting with the outside world. This teaching seeks to integrate all areas of knowledge about man. First of all, it relies on the material of psychology, social biology, sociology and ethology (studies the genetically determined behavior of animals, including humans).
- 8. Philosophy of science - studies the general patterns and trends of scientific knowledge. Separately, there are also such disciplines as the philosophy of mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, economics, history, law, culture, technology, language, etc.
The main directions of modern world philosophical thought (XX-XXI centuries)
- 1. Neo-positivism, analytical philosophy and post-positivism (T. Kuhn, K. Popper, I. Lokatos, S. Tulmin, P. Feyerabend and others) - these teachings are the result of the consistent development of positivism. They are engaged in the analysis of problems faced by particular (other than philosophy) sciences. These are the problems of physics, mathematics, history, political science, ethics, linguistics, as well as the problems of the development of scientific knowledge in general.
- 2. Existentialism (K. Jaspers, J.P. Sartre, A. Camus, G. Marcel, N. Berdyaev and others) - the philosophy of human existence. Human existence in this teaching is understood as a stream of experiences of an individual, which is always unique, unrepeatable. Existentialists focus on the individual human being, on the conscious life of the individual, the uniqueness of his life situations, while neglecting the study of the underlying objective universal processes and laws. Nevertheless, existentialists strive to create a direction of philosophy that would be closest to the actual problems of a person's life, analyze the most typical life situations. Their main themes are: true freedom, responsibility and creativity.
- 3. Neo-Thomism (E. Gilson, J. Maritain, K. Wojtyla and others) - a modern form religious philosophy engaged in understanding the world and solving universal problems from the standpoint of Catholicism. He sees the introduction of higher spiritual values into the life of people as his main task.
- 4. Pragmatism (C. Pierce, W. James, D. Dewey, etc.) - associated with a pragmatic position on solving all problems. Considers the expediency of certain actions and decisions from the point of view of their practical usefulness or personal benefit. For example, if a person is terminally ill and no benefit is calculated in his future existence, then, from the standpoint of pragmatism, he has the right to euthanasia (assistance in the death of a seriously and terminally ill person). The criterion of truth, from the point of view of this doctrine, is also usefulness. At the same time, the denial by representatives of pragmatism of the existence of objective, universally valid truths and the understanding that the goal justifies any means of achieving it casts a shadow on humanistic ideals and moral values. So, Dewey writes: "I myself - and no one else can decide for me how I should act, what is right, true, useful and beneficial for me." If everyone in society takes such a position, then in the end it will turn into only a field of conflict of various selfish motives and interests, where there will be no rules and norms, no responsibility.
- 5. Marxism (K. Marx, F. Engels, V.I. Lenin, E.V. Ilyenkov, V.V. Orlov and others) is a materialistic philosophy that claims to have the status of a scientific one. In his analysis of reality, he relies on the material of private sciences. Strives to identify the most general laws and patterns of development of nature, society and thinking. The main method of cognition is dialectical. Dialectics (other Greek dialektike - the art of arguing, reasoning) is a way of thinking that seeks to comprehend an object in its integrity and development, in the unity of its opposite properties and tendencies, in diverse connections with other objects and processes. The original meaning of this concept was associated with a philosophical dialogue, the ability to conduct a discussion, listen to and take into account the opinions of opponents, striving to find the path to the truth. The social philosophy of Marxism is based on the idea of creating a communist society built on the ideals of equality, justice, freedom, responsibility and mutual assistance. The ultimate goal of building such a society is to create conditions for the free self-realization of any individual, the most complete disclosure of its potential, where it would be possible to implement the principle: "from each according to his abilities, to each according to his needs." However, for the realization of these ideals, the problem of the individual, unique being of the personality, the richness of its inner world and needs has not been sufficiently worked out in it.
- 6. Phenomenology (E. Husserl, M. Merleau-Ponty and others) - a doctrine that proceeds from the fact that it is necessary to clear our thinking of all superficial, artificial logical constructions, but at the same time it neglects the study of the essential world, independent of the human perception and comprehension. Phenomenologists believe that the knowledge of the objective world is impossible, therefore, they study only the world of meanings (while calling them entities), patterns in the formation of semantic reality. They believe that our idea of the world is not a reflection of the objective world itself, but is an artificial logical construction. To restore the true picture of the world, we must proceed only from our practical attitude to things and processes. Our understanding of things should develop depending on how we use them, how they manifest themselves in relation to us, and not what their real essence is, capable of explaining cause-and-effect relationships. For example, for them it does not matter what physical or chemical properties the material from which the thing is made has, what bacteria live in it and what microscopic processes take place in it, for them greater value has its form and the functions it performs. From their point of view, speaking of things, we should put into them only the practical meaning of their possible use. Speaking of natural and social processes, we must first of all mean their possible influence on us or the significance they have for us. Thus, the phenomenological approach separates a person from reality, removes the attitude to understanding the relationships and laws of the world, discredits the desire for wisdom and objective truth, and loses sight of the value of experimental knowledge accumulated by mankind.
- 7. Hermeneutics (W. Dilthey, F. Schleiermacher, H.G. Gadamer and others) - philosophical direction which develops methods for the correct understanding of texts, avoiding its own bias, “pre-understanding” and, trying to penetrate not only the author’s intention, but also his state in the process of writing, into the atmosphere in which this text was created. At the same time, a very broad meaning is invested in the concept of text, in their understanding, all the reality we understand is a special kind of text, since we comprehend it through linguistic structures, all our thoughts are expressed in language.
- 8. Psychoanalytic philosophy (Z. Freud, K. Jung, A. Adler, E. Fromm) - explores the patterns of functioning and development of the human psyche, the mechanisms of interaction between the conscious and the unconscious. Analyzes various mental phenomena, the most typical human experiences, seeks to identify their nature and causes, to find ways to treat mental disorders.
- 9. Postmodernism (J. Deleuze, F. Guattari, J.-F. Lyotard, J. Derrida and others) is a philosophy that, on the one hand, is an expression of the self-awareness of a person of the modern era, and on the other hand, seeks to destroy the classical philosophical tradition, striving for the knowledge of wisdom and truth. All classical philosophical truths and Eternal values it begins to be revised and discredited. If the modern era, the modern cultural situation (postmodern) can be called a revolt of feelings against reason, emotions and attitudes against rationality, then the philosophy of postmodernism revolts against any form that can claim to limit the freedom of the individual. However, objectivity, truth, correctness, regularity, universality, responsibility, any norms, rules and forms of duty are on the way to such absolute freedom. All this is declared to be a tool of the authorities and elites to manipulate public opinion. Freedom, novelty, spontaneity, unpredictability and pleasure are proclaimed as the highest values. Life, from their point of view, is a kind of game that should not be taken seriously and responsibly. However, the destruction of those norms, ideals and values that were developed through trial and error based on the generalization of the experience of many generations of people is dangerous for the further existence of mankind, since this is the way for society to create unbearable conditions for life (the struggle of selfish motives, the constant use of each other, endless wars, the growth of the ecological crisis, the aggravation of personal problems, etc.).
Indeed, as a result of such a postmodern trend, a simplified understanding of life begins to be valued in society, a person begins to understand the world in the way that it is convenient for him to think about it. And therefore people begin to face many problems only because of their short-sightedness, only because they imagine life differently from what it really is. Their expectations about life turn out to be deceived, their dreams and goals turn out to be unattainable or achievable, but lead to a different result than they expected, bring them only disappointment. It is no coincidence that the origins of the current global economic crisis come from the short-sightedness of state rulers, heads of financial structures and ordinary people who, without calculating the consequences, accumulated loans and debts that far exceeded reasonable limits.
Philosophy (from Greek phileo - love, sophia - wisdom) - love of wisdom.
Philosophy is the science of the universal, it is a free and universal field of human knowledge, a constant search for something new.
Philosophy can be defined as the doctrine of the general principles of knowledge, being and relations between man and the world.
The subject of philosophy is everything that exists in the fullness of its meaning and content. Philosophy is not aimed at determining the external interactions and the exact boundaries between the parts and particles of the world, but at understanding their internal connection and unity.
Main features: 1) the synthesis of knowledge and the creation of a unified picture of the world corresponding to a certain level of development of science, culture and historical experience; 2) substantiation, justification and analysis of the worldview; 3) development of a general methodology for cognition and human activity in the surrounding world.
Functions of Philosophy:
Worldview function (associated with the conceptual explanation of the world);
Methodological function (consists in the fact that philosophy acts as common doctrine about the method and as a set of the most general methods of cognition and development of reality by a person);
Prognostic function (formulates hypotheses about the general trends in the development of matter and consciousness, man and the world);
Critical function (applies not only to other disciplines, but also to philosophy itself, the principle “question everything” indicates the importance of a critical approach to existing knowledge and sociocultural values);
Axiological function (from the Greek axios - valuable; any philosophical system contains the moment of evaluating the object under study from the point of view of the various values themselves: moral, social, aesthetic, etc.);
social function(Relying on it, philosophy is called upon to perform a dual task - to explain social being and contribute to its material and spiritual change).
The whole variety of philosophical problems can be reduced to five main groups:
ontological; epistemological; axiological; praxeological; anthropological.
These five groups of problems form the structure of any philosophical knowledge. Ontology is a philosophical doctrine of being and being. Gnoseology is a philosophical doctrine of knowledge. Axiology is a philosophical doctrine of values. Praxeology is the philosophical doctrine of action. Anthropology is a philosophical study of man. All sections of philosophical knowledge exist in an inseparable unity. In addition to the main groups of philosophical problems that form the core of philosophy, in the structure of philosophical knowledge there are areas of study that are correlated with a specific fragment of spiritual culture or a form of social consciousness: philosophy of science, philosophy of history, philosophy of art, philosophy of religion, philosophy of mythology, philosophy of politics. Each of these elements is based on the ideas and principles formulated in the "core" of philosophical knowledge - ontology, epistemology, axiology, praxeology and anthropology.
The main sections of philosophy
The main sections of philosophy:
1) ontology - the world as a whole, its origin and fundamental principles
2) epistemology - the science of the means and methods of knowledge.
3) ethics - the science of morality, morality and proper behavior.
4) aesthetics - the science of beauty and art.
5) anthropology - the science of development, origin, human nature.:
The main sections of philosophy
Ontology as a branch of philosophy
Types of logics that determine the construction of ontology:
1) formal logic
Tertium non datum - there is no third
Dialectical logic allows both A and not A at the same time
The low exchange rate of the ruble: good or bad?
3) multi-valued (relativistic logic) - evaluates the degree or probability from 0 to 1. Depends on the frame of reference.
4) negative logic - Eastern logic (Buddhism) - neither one nor the other.
Epoch - abstinence of condemnation, non-duality.
Not (A and not A)
Car accident. Two strategies to explain to yourself how this happened. 1) blame circumstances 2) blame yourself
Metaphysics - believes that there is something absolute and unchanging in the world that does not depend on time, circumstances and the subject of perception. Uses formal logic, believes that there is absolute truth.
The laws of mathematics are universal. Moral principles are considered universal. God. Nirvana.
Causa sui is the cause of oneself.
Theseus' ship (paradox)
Relativism - everything changes, everything is relative, depends on time, place, subject of perception.
The concept of morality is relative.
Dialectic - the world consists of opposites of their struggle and unity.
Confucianism believed that man is naturally neutral - tabula rasa. Education defines.
Lao Tzu all people are naturally kind.
How are things happening in the world? What are they subject to, how are they managed?
Determinism - everything is due to natural causes. Answers questions why.
Indeterminism - Most processes happen by chance.
Inversion of the earth's magnetic field. Nonlinear Equations Describing Nonlinear Processes.
Teleology - teleos - goal, logos - teaching - all processes in the world are subordinated to a higher goal.
Arbitrium liberum - free will
1) closer to teleology: fatalism - the doctrine that everything is already predetermined
The Stoics: Marcus Aurelius and Epipictetus, Amor fati - love of fate
Marx: being determines consciousness
2) voluntarism (Nietzsche, American philosophy of the 20th century) - everything is in our hands and we create our own destiny
3) Machiavelli, Fortune
Ethics as a branch of philosophy
Film Confucius
Golden Rules of Ethics:
2) morality
3) proper behavior
The Golden Rule of Ethics: Treat others as you would like to be treated. Confucius
Thales: what annoys you in others, don't do it yourself
Bible: With what measure you measure, it will be measured.
The paradox of tolerance:
"we have a custom - not to impose our customs"
Golden mean rule:
Thales: Nothing beyond measure (Temple of Apollo at Delphi)
Confucius: have two extremes, but choose the middle: an altruist and an egoist, an ascetic and a hedonist, the parable is neither hard nor soft.
Ontology
Where did it come from and what is the world made of.
Monism - everything consists of only one substance. The plurality is illusory.
Dualism - the world consists of two principles. Matter + form or idea.
Pluralism is more than two fundamental principles.
Gnoseology as a branch of philosophy
The main issue of epistemology: Correlation between reality and perception and thinking of reality. The perception and the world coincide.
Agnostics - objective reality is not cognizable
Relativists - knowledge about time and the subject of perception
Sources of knowledge
Empiricism - John Locke: the child's mind is a blank slate. All knowledge comes from experience.
Apriorism - all knowledge exists before experience. Kant.
Means of knowledge:
Sensualism - all knowledge from the senses. Induction.
Rationalism - reason is the main source of knowledge. Deduction.
Irrationalism - there are other sources of knowledge: intuition, revelation.
Ax saw log fork
lateral thinking
4) Basic questions of philosophy. Ways to solve them
The question of the relationship between consciousness and being, spirit and nature is the main question of philosophy. From the solution of this issue, ultimately, depends the interpretation of all other problems that determine the philosophical outlook on nature, society, and, therefore, on man himself.
When considering the fundamental question of philosophy, it is very important to distinguish between its two sides. First, what is primary - ideal or material? This or that answer to this question plays the most important role in philosophy, because to be primary means to exist before the secondary, to precede it, ultimately, to determine it. Secondly, can a person cognize the world around him, the laws of development of nature and society? The essence of this side of the main question of philosophy is to clarify the ability of human thinking to correctly reflect objective reality.
Solving the main question, philosophers were divided into two large camps, depending on what they take as the source - material or ideal. Those philosophers who recognize primary matter, being, nature, and secondary - consciousness, thinking, spirit, represent a philosophical direction called materialistic. In philosophy, there is also the opposite of materialistic idealistic direction. Philosophers-idealists recognize the beginning of all existing consciousness, thinking, spirit, i.e. perfect. There is another solution to the main question of philosophy - dualism, which believes that the material and spiritual sides exist separately from one another as independent entities.
Only Marxist philosophy has given a comprehensive, materialistic, scientifically substantiated solution to the Basic Question. She sees the primacy of matter in the fact that:
matter is the source of consciousness, and consciousness is a reflection of matter;
consciousness is the result of a long process of development of the material world;
consciousness is a property, a function of the highly organized matter of the brain;
the existence and development of human consciousness, thinking is impossible without a linguistic material shell, without speech;
consciousness arises, is formed and improved as a result of the material labor activity of a person;
consciousness has a social character and is determined by material social being.
Philosophy is the science of the universal, it is a free and universal field of human knowledge, a constant search for the new. Philosophy can be defined as the doctrine of the general principles of knowledge, being and relations between man and the world.
The main efforts of self-realized philosophical thought are directed towards finding the higher principle and meaning of being.
The Purpose of Philosophy- to captivate a person with the highest ideals, take him out of the sphere of everyday life, give his life a true meaning, open the way to the most perfect values.
The understanding of the subject of philosophical knowledge has changed historically. There is no single definition of philosophy today. At the same time, in our opinion, the specificity of philosophy is most accurately expressed by the interpretation of its subject as universal in the system of relations "world-man". This system includes various types of human relations to the world: cognitive, practical, value-oriented.
It seems that these types of relationships are quite accurately identified German philosopher Immanul Kant(1724 - 1804) in the three questions he formulated, accumulating the problematic core of philosophy.
- What can I know?- Or what are the cognitive capabilities of the human race (cognitive type of human relationship to the world).
- What should I do?- In other words, what should I do to be a man and live with dignity (a practical type of a person's attitude to the world).
- What can I hope for? — This is a question about values and ideals (the value type of a person's attitude to the world).
By answering these three questions, we get the answer to the integrative question: "What is a man?"
- all that exists in the fullness of its meaning and content. Philosophy is not aimed at determining the external interactions and the exact boundaries between the parts and particles of the world, but at understanding their internal connection and unity.
Structure of philosophy
The complex structuring of the very subject of philosophy determines the branched internal structure of philosophical knowledge, which consists of the following areas:
- Ontology- the doctrine of being (about the origins and root causes of all things).
- Epistemology- the doctrine of knowledge (philosophical theory of knowledge), answering questions about what is true and reliable knowledge, what are the criteria and methods for obtaining true knowledge, what are the specifics of various forms of cognitive activity.
- Axiology- the doctrine of values.
- Philosophical anthropology- the doctrine of the essence of man, the meaning of human life, necessity and chance, freedom, etc.
- Logics- the doctrine of the laws and forms of human thinking.
- Ethics the doctrine of the laws and principles of morality.
- Aesthetics - a doctrine that explores aesthetic values (beauty, ugliness, tragic, comic, vile, etc.) and art as a special artistic activity.
Philosophy of religion, philosophy of culture, philosophy of science and technology, and other branches of philosophical knowledge are being formed in the 19th-20th centuries.
Philosophy includes:
- the doctrine of the general principles of the existence of the universe (ontology or metaphysics);
- about the essence and development human society(social philosophy and philosophy of history);
- the doctrine of man and his being in the world (philosophical anthropology);
- theory of knowledge;
- problems of the theory of knowledge and creativity;
- ethics;
- aesthetics;
- theory of culture;
- its own history, that is, the history of philosophy. The history of philosophy is an essential component of the subject matter of philosophy: it is part of the content of philosophy itself.
Subject of Philosophy
The term " philosophy” arose from the combination of two Greek words “phileo” - love and “sophia” - wisdom and means love of wisdom.
Philosophy as a way and form of spiritual activity originated in and, but reached its classical form in. The term “philosophy” was first used to designate a special sphere of knowledge. At first, philosophy included the entire body of knowledge about the world.
The growing need for knowledge and the expansion of the scope of their application in practice stimulated an increase in their volume and diversity and led to the differentiation of knowledge, expressed in the emergence of different sciences. The decomposition of unified knowledge into separate sciences, which began as early as in , did not mean the disappearance of philosophy. On the contrary, there is a need for a special section of knowledge that can act as a means of integrating knowledge and a way to develop the most general principles and norms of people's cognitive and transformative activity. Philosophy gradually concentrated its attention on theorizing around the most general worldview problems of nature, society and thinking, trying to answer questions about the goals and meaning of the existence of society and the individual. It is impossible to give answers to these questions that arise in the historically specific conditions of life that are suitable for all times and all peoples. People who posed worldview questions strove to get answers to them that corresponded to their needs and level of intellectual development. Moreover, in different historical conditions, not only the set of worldview questions changes, but their very hierarchy is transformed, as well as the nature of the desired answers to them. This lays the foundation for specificity in understanding the subject of philosophy and in its content.
It should be noted that for a long time the subject of philosophy was identified by many scientists with the subject of science in general, and the knowledge contained within the framework of individual sciences was considered as components of philosophy. This situation continued until the eighteenth century. However, various thinkers singled out those facets of the subject of philosophy that were the object of primary interest for them to the forefront of philosophizing. Often, individual thinkers limited the subject of philosophical research to only a few, which seemed to them the most essential parts. In other words, it must be borne in mind that the subject of philosophy, as well as ideas about it, is formed with the development of scientific knowledge, that is, information about it is formed in the course of the transformation of philosophy itself. For example, it is known from the history of philosophy that as a subject of philosophy for the first ancient Greek philosophers the natural world acted, later the whole world acted in this capacity. For the Epicureans and the late Stoics, the subject matter of philosophy is mainly outlined by the range of problems relating to man in the world. Christian philosophers of the Middle Ages reduced the subject of philosophy to the relationship between man and God. In modern times, the problems of cognition and methodology come to the fore in the structure of the subject of philosophy. In the age of enlightenment, for many European philosophers, the subject of reflection again becomes a person with all his many relationships. In the XIX - XX centuries. The diversity of schools and ideas in world philosophy also corresponds to the richness of ideas about the nature of its subject. Nowadays, the natural and social world, as well as the person in it as a multidimensional and multilevel system in all the abundance of connections, is the subject of philosophical reflection. Philosophy studies the most general aspects, properties, trends in the development of the world, reveals the universal principles of self-organization, existence and development of the nature of society, man and his thinking, reveals the goals and meaning of human existence in the world. At the same time, modern philosophy bases its conclusions on a generalization of data from particular sciences.
The subject of philosophy also includes the consideration of questions about how philosophy itself arises, develops and transforms, how it interacts with various forms of social consciousness and practice.
In other words, as subject of philosophy the whole set of the most common questions concerning the relationship between man and the world is considered, the answer to which makes it possible for a person to optimize the realization of his needs and interests.
The Purpose of Philosophy
Philosophy as a system of knowledge about the most general principles that fix a person's attitude to the world, arises from the need of people to develop rational foundations that give integrity to the worldview, and direction to cognitive and practical efforts. This means that philosophy, while accumulating, combines, on the one hand, the most general ideas about the world as a whole, and, on the other hand, information about the most ambitious principles of attitude to the world, applied in the course of cognitive and practical activities. Starting from the previously established forms of non-philosophical, pre-philosophical and pre-philosophical worldview, subjecting them to critical rethinking, philosophy, based on a rational attitude to the world and theoretical synthesis of information about it, forms a generalized image of it in relation to the needs of ensuring people's lives. For this, philosophy needs to develop a special conceptual apparatus that forms the basis of its language, which helps to express the philosophical attitude of man to the world. However, the formation of a philosophical language, techniques and methods of philosophical knowledge is only a component of the goal of philosophy. The essence of the goal of philosophy is to teach a person to think and, on this basis, to relate to the world in a certain way. The realization of this goal by philosophy turns it into the basis for a person's understanding of the meaning and purpose of life, understanding of involvement in what is happening in the world.
Such an understanding of the purpose of philosophy and its purpose did not develop immediately. With the development of philosophy, it changed depending on the ideas about what it is. According to Plato, philosophy is the love of wisdom and the means of achieving total knowledge, as well as the condition for the proper organization of personal and social life. For Aristotle, philosophy is the study of the causes and principles of the existence of things, that is, its goal is to identify and fix such causes and principles. The Stoics considered philosophy as a means of organizing the proper relationship of a person to the world, society and himself. The purpose of philosophy from here is to ensure the following of duty. The Epicureans saw philosophy as a guide to achieving happiness. Accordingly, the goal of philosophy for them was to ensure the achievement of happiness. For Thomas Aquinas, philosophy is the knowledge of truth relating to the first principle of being. And, therefore, its purpose is to reveal such truths. In the understanding of R. Descartes, philosophy is not only a condition for prudence in business, but also a source of knowledge about everything that a person knows. According to T. Hobbes, philosophy is knowledge that explains actions from causes known to us or producing bases. In understanding the goal of philosophy, they were close and saw it in the fulfillment by this discipline of the role of a means of organizing knowledge of the world and guiding practice. For I. Kant, philosophy is the science of ultimate goals human mind. Accordingly, the goal of this science is seen by I. Kant in their identification.
G. V. F. Hegel considered philosophy to be a thinking consideration of objects, penetration into the rational, comprehension of the cash and the real. In other words, such penetration and comprehension is the goal of philosophy. According to M. Heidegger, philosophy is a reflection aimed at the whole and the ultimate. Consequently, the goal of philosophy is to clarify the essence of the whole and the ultimate.
In the domestic philosophy of our days, different ideas about its goals are reflected., which finds expression in the variety of definitions of the concept of “philosophy”. Some representatives of this science define it as the highest kind of worldview. Others identify it with worldview reflection or activity aimed at compiling ideas about the values of life. For others, this discipline means the science of the most general laws of motion and development in nature, society, and thought. The fourth define it as a doctrine, a special system of views, knowledge about the world as a whole and the principles of a person's attitude towards it. In the definitions of philosophy available in the educational literature, attention is drawn to such significant possibilities of philosophy as the ability to be the basis of world outlook, worldview, to act as a means of identifying the most general laws and principles of movement and development in nature, society and thinking, on the one hand, and to be the basis for the development and implementation of the principles of organizing the optimal life of people, on the other hand. The multiplicity of the meanings of the concept of philosophy presented in the works of philosophers testifies to the versatility of its content and the complexity of the purpose of its purpose. The concentrated content of this goal is to develop the fundamental principles of the life support practice of the social community.
A generalization of the above experience of defining philosophy gives the right to define it as follows: philosophy is a form of spiritual activity that develops, on the basis of a developing system of knowledge about the world as a whole, about the most general laws of nature, society and thinking, the fundamental principles that guide a person in his practice.
Structure of philosophy
Consideration as an implementation of the directions of its purpose provides a basis for highlighting special sections or elements of its structure in it.
Philosophy in its structure is divided into:- theory of knowledge;
- metaphysics (ontology, philosophical anthropology, cosmology, theology, philosophy of existence);
- logic (mathematics, logistics);
- ethics;
- philosophy of law;
- aesthetics and philosophy of art;
- natural philosophy;
- philosophy of history and culture;
- social and economic philosophy;
- religious philosophy;
- psychology.
- ontology - the doctrine of being;
- epistemology - the doctrine of knowledge;
- dialectics - the doctrine of development
- axiology (theory of values);
- hermeneutics (the theory of understanding and interpretation of knowledge).
A special section in philosophy, the problems of which are included both in general theoretical (systematic philosophy) and in social philosophy, is the philosophy of science. Social philosophy includes social ontology, that is, the doctrine of the being and existence of society, philosophical anthropology, that is, the doctrine of man, and praxeology, that is, the theory of human activity. Social ontology, along with the study of the most common problems existence and development of society explores philosophical problems economics, politics, law, science and religion.
1 The subject of philosophy, its structure and functionsPhilosophy is a worldview because any philosophical doctrine contains a system of worldview generalizations.
Philosophy is a special form of cognition of the world, which develops a system of knowledge about fundamental features, about the most essential features.
Philosophy includes the doctrine of the general principles of the existence of the universe (ontology or metaphysics), the essence and development of human society (social philosophy and philosophy of history), the doctrine of man and his existence in the world (philosophical anthropology), the theory of knowledge (gnoseology), problems theories of knowledge and creativity, ethics, aesthetics, the theory of culture and, finally, their own history, i.e. the history of philosophy, which is an essential component of the subject of philosophy: the history of philosophy is part of the content of philosophy itself. This is how the subject of philosophy developed historically, i.e. the range of its specific sections and problems, both theoretically and practically, i.e. organizationally and pedagogically, its sections were differentiated. The subject matter of philosophy is not just one aspect of being, but everything that is, in the fullness of its content and meaning. Philosophy is not aimed at determining the exact boundaries and external interactions between parts and particles of the world, but at understanding their internal connection and unity.
Philosophical knowledge has a certain structure. Traditionally, philosophy includes ontology - the doctrine of being, epistemology - the doctrine of knowledge, axiology - the doctrine of values. They also distinguish social philosophy and the philosophy of history, as well as philosophical anthropology - the doctrine of man, the history of philosophy, ethics, aesthetics.
The content of the functions of philosophy:
The ideological function contributes to the formation of the integrity of the picture of the world, ideas about its structure, the place of a person in it, the principles of interaction with the outside world.
The methodological function lies in the fact that philosophy develops the main methods of cognition of the surrounding reality.
The thought-theoretical function is expressed in the fact that philosophy teaches to think conceptually and theorize - to maximally generalize the surrounding reality, to create mental-logical schemes, systems of the surrounding world.
Gnoseological - one of the fundamental functions of philosophy - aims at correct and reliable knowledge of the surrounding reality (that is, the mechanism of knowledge).
The role of the critical function is to question the surrounding world and the existing meaning, to look for their new features, qualities, to reveal contradictions. The ultimate goal of this function is to expand the boundaries of knowledge, the destruction of dogmas, the ossification of knowledge, its modernization, and the increase in the reliability of knowledge.
- The axiological function of philosophy (translated from Greek axios - valuable) is to evaluate things, phenomena of the surrounding world from the point of view of various values - moral, ethical, social, ideological, etc. The purpose of the axiological function is to be a "sieve" through which skip everything that is necessary, valuable and useful and discard the inhibitory and obsolete. The axiological function is especially enhanced during critical periods of history (the beginning of the Middle Ages - the search for new (theological) values after the collapse of Rome; the Renaissance; the Reformation; the crisis of capitalism late XIX- the beginning of the twentieth century. and etc.).
Social function - to explain society, the reasons for its emergence, the evolution of the current state, its structure, elements, driving forces; reveal contradictions, indicate ways to eliminate or mitigate them, improve society.
The educational and humanitarian function of philosophy is to cultivate humanistic values and ideals, instill them in a person and society, help strengthen morality, help a person adapt to the world around him and find the meaning of life.
The prognostic function is to predict development trends, the future of matter, consciousness, cognitive processes, man, nature and society based on the existing philosophical knowledge about the world and man, the achievements of knowledge.
Question 2 Positivism as an alternative to philosophical metaphysics. Her stages of development. main representatives.
In the 19-20 century. Philosophy develops according to a non-classical scenario. there is a crisis of its metaphysical foundations.
Positivism is the philosophy of science. Founder O.Kont in the 30s of the 19th century. Main work: course of positive philosophy. Positivism is a branch of philosophy that originated in the 30s and 40s of the 19th century. and advocating that philosophy be freed from scientific features and rely only on reliable scientific knowledge. According to positivists, philosophy should investigate only facts (and not their inner essence), free itself from any evaluative role, be guided in research by the scientific arsenal of means (like any other science), and rely on the scientific method.
The main ideas of positivism:
1 science is the only effective means of solving the problems of mankind. Thus, positivism formed scientism - a doctrine that is based on science and sees in it the main driving force development of society.
2 optimistic about social progress, confidence in its immutability.
3 struggle against philosophy as metaphysical abstract knowledge; philosophy should not include unverifiable speculative propositions.
Philosophy is the same science as any specific science, its place among other scientific disciplines.
Stage 1: 30 years of the 19th century - First positivism (Spencer, Mill)
Stage 2: Empirio-criticism (Mach, Avenarius), late 19th - early 20th century. The main idea of empirio-criticism is that philosophy should be based on critical experience. Empirio-criticism acts from a subjective-idealistic position: all objects, phenomena of the surrounding world are presented to a person in the form of a "complex of sensations". Consequently, the study of the surrounding world is possible only as an experimental study of human sensations.
Stage 3: neo-positivism (Russell, Wittgenstein), from 20 20 century. Until the middle of the 20th century. The main idea of neopositivism is that philosophy should deal with logical analysis the language of science, since language, like the language of science, is the main means through which a person positively (reliably, scientifically) perceives the world around him.
Stage 4: positivism (Popper, Kuhn, Feyerabend, Lakatos) Postpositivism departs from the priority of the logical study of symbols (language, scientific apparatus) and turns to the history of science. The main goal of postpositivism is not the study of the structure (like neopositivists) of scientific knowledge (language, concepts), but the development of scientific knowledge.
3 question Philosophy of life as a current of irrationalism. Nietzsche's teaching.
In the first half of the 19th century, criticism of rationalism intensified, which led to the emergence of philosophical movements asserting the superiority
an unreasonable beginning over a reasonable one, who consider the irrational to be the main characteristic of the world is called irrationalism.
Life is the primary reality preceding the division of the world into material and ideal. It is the directly experienced essence of the world. Life is a universal principle of the world that connects both the problems of being and the problems of value.
Representatives: Schopenhauer, Nietzsche, Simmel, Delthey.
Nietzsche (1844-1900) - "the will to power", "beyond good and evil", "thus spoke Zarathustra".
Nietzsche's main ideas:
Positive idea: approval of the cultural and ethical ideal in the form of the concept of the superman.
Negative idea: revaluation of all values.
The main positive task of philosophy: the affirmation of the highest value of the cultural improvement of man, as a result of which a new type of man should appear, which Nietzsche calls superman.
Superman is a new zoological type superior to homo sapiens in moral and intellectual qualities. It can be achieved through the improvement, strict selection and conscious education of a new breed of people. Superman is the creator of himself as a free and autonomous personality. He has the following qualities: heroism, fearlessness, honesty, thirst for active love, generosity, firmness.
Then Nietzsche rethought this image by highlighting the cult of the strong personality.
The negative part: Nietzsche's war for the liberation of people from the power of spirits and social authorities.
Nietzsche argues that the main principle of being is the will to power. Life is a special kind of world energy, one of the manifestations of the will to power.
4 Existentialism: its problems, ideas and representatives.
Existentialism is a direction of philosophy, the main subject of study of which was a person, his problems, difficulties, existence in the world around him.
Predecessors of existentialism: Dostoevsky, Nietzsche. Soren, Kierkegaard - criticizes classical irrationalism and panlogism. Works: "Either or". The author notes the irony of human life, a person is always in a situation of choice. The individual defines himself at the moment of choice. "The choice between good and evil is obvious." But what about the choice between good and good, happiness and happiness.
Existentialism is divided into religious and secular (atheistic)
Existentialism proceeds from the opposition of the phenomena of the life series: faith, hope, love, pain, suffering and the phenomena of the cognitive series: a person directly experiences his abandonment to this world. This experience is the initial unit of the existential description of a person's existential relations with the world.
One of the irrationalistic schools of the 20th century is existentialism (from the beginning of the 20th century to 60-70 of the 20th century)
Representatives:
In Russia: Lev Shestov, Nikolai Berdyaev
In Germany: Heidegger, Jaspers, bubber.
In France: G. Marcel, Sartre, Camus
In Spain: Ortega y Gasset
The main problems of existentialism were: man as a unique being, philosophy of being, humanism, the history of Western European civilization, the problem of freedom and responsibility, death as the secret essence of human existence, the problem of time as a characteristic human being. Our theory, J.-P. Sartre emphasized, is a single theory that gives dignity to a person, a single theory that does not make an object out of it.
Question 5 Philosophical postmodernism as a comprehension of information-computer reality.
Postmodern is a society that corresponds to the era of information-computer reality. Lyotor was the first to use this concept. The main representatives of Derrida, Deleuze, Baudrillard, Guattari, Zizek. Postmodernism denies being as the being of things and, accordingly, denies the metaphysics of being. The predecessor can be called such a phenomenon as a linguistic turn, which put the existence of relationships, knowledge and meanings in place of the existence of things.
M. Foucault introduced the concept of discourse - a text, an utterance, together with the social practice to which it belongs and which it carries. Millions of people in modern society they speak and write, that is, they produce discourse. Objective labor gives way to language, thinking and speaking.
Basic concepts of postmodernism:
1. Deconstruction - the destruction of the metaphysical doctrine of being. Purpose: negation of any presence. Presence is replaced by absence.
2. Simulacrum - what we have in the language in the form of "as if"
6 question Philosophical meaning categories of being. Ontology.
Ontology as the doctrine of being is the metaphysics of being.
In antiquity, two opposing concepts of being arose:
1 The concept of Heraclitus - he believed that the world is and will be fire. According to Heraclitus, there is an endless process of transition from one to another, i.e. becoming. He formulated the law of self-transition, self-return, confrontation and renewal of substance.
One and the same in us - living and dead, awake and sleeping, young and old. After all, this, having changed, is that, and that, having changed, is this.
2 The concept of Parmenides - being homogeneous, unchanging, motionless, indivisible, one. On the one hand, there is an unchanging and non-becoming basis, on the other, there is a mobile empirical appearance. Parmenides believes that it is impossible to prove that the non-existent exists. According to Parmenides, the law of identity: being and thinking are identical.
Develops the ideas of Parmenides - Plato: he separates the world of knowledge and the world of opinion.
Being is eternal, unchanging, that which is known by the mind.
Aristotle: rejects the doctrine of ideas as a supernatural entity. He calls essence being) individuals. Secondary entities are species and genera. This is how the idea of an intelligible object appears.
Life forms:
1 Being of nature - all materialized forms of nature that have existed in the past and will continue to exist. The main feature of this form of being is its primacy and objectivity. Distinguish between the first nature and the second nature (object-material world created by people to meet their needs).
2 The existence of man is the existence of his corporality as a part of nature, the existence of his spirituality, as a rational, conscious substance.
3 The existence of society as a system of social relations and connections.
4 Being spiritual.
Ontology is a branch of philosophy, a philosophical doctrine of Being, of beings as such in its most general characteristics, regardless of its particular forms and in abstraction from issues related to its comprehension (cognition).
Classical ontology operates with such categories as substance (the basis of everything), essence, universality, integrity, etc., as a rule, it implies the construction of an integral ontological system built on the principle “from general to particular”.
Modern ontology implies the presence of "regional" private ontologies, which are perceived not as a concept, but as an event, as an "ontology of the present" (Deleuz). Here, the categories of life, creativity, freedom, or, in other cases, the category of "simulacrum" can come first - as a means of replacing the previous concepts, as a fake, an imitation that retains its former form, but completely lost its content (examples of actions - simulacra - words that have lost their former meaning; dinners that have replaced the previous ritual actions, advertising, production of disposable household items, etc.)
7 question Philosophical understanding matter. Movement, space and time as attributes of matter.
Matter (from lat. materia - substance) - philosophical category to denote objective reality, which is displayed by our sensations, existing independently of them (objectively).
Matter is a generalization of the concept of material and ideal, due to their relativity. While the term "reality" has an epistemological connotation, the term "matter" has an ontological connotation.
The concept of matter is one of the fundamental concepts of materialism and, in particular, such a trend in philosophy as dialectical materialism.
TRAFFIC. As applied to matter, this is a change in general. Movement is an attribute, an essential property of matter. There is no immobile matter, invariably in a state of absolute rest. Matter and motion are inseparable. Movement is the only way for matter to exist. The idea of matter devoid of motion has one of its sources a metaphysical understanding of the relationship between rest and motion.
Space and time as well as movement are attributes of matter. There is nothing in the world except moving matter, and moving matter cannot move except in space and time. Space is a set of relations expressing the coordination of material objects, their location relative to each other and relative size.
Time is a set of relations expressing the coordination of successive states (phenomena), their sequence and duration.
Question 8 Dialectics is the doctrine of the universal connection of development. Basic principles, laws and categories of dialectics.
Dialectics is the theory and method of cognition of reality, the doctrine of universal connection and development. Ideas about the variability and interconnectedness of all things arose in ancient times. The first classical form of dialectics arose in the depths of the German idealistic philosophy(XVIII-XIX centuries). In its completed form (Hegel's philosophy) was a system of interrelated concepts, categories, laws, reflecting the world-historical procession of the absolute idea.
Basic principles of dialectics: 1. Everything in the world is in motion, changes are inherent in everything, and the movement goes from the lowest to the highest, from the simple to the complex. The main line of these changes is development 2. Everything in the world is interconnected, there is no such phenomenon 3. Movement is determined by the internal inconsistency of things and objects. The main source of movement is internal contradiction.
"Three Laws of Dialectics".
The law of transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones.
The law of unity and struggle of opposites.
The law of negation of negation.
essence and phenomenon; form and content; cause and investigation; single, special, universal; possibility and reality; necessity and chance.
Question 9 Essence, structure and functions of consciousness. The problem of the ideal.
Consciousness is the highest function of the brain, peculiar only to people and associated with speech, which consists in a generalized and purposeful reflection of reality, in a preliminary mental construction of actions and anticipation of their results, in reasonable regulation and self-control of human behavior.
Functions of consciousness:
1 Worldview 2 Cognitive 3 Creative 4 Regulatory and managerial 5 Evaluative 6 Coordinating.
The structure of consciousness.
1 Knowledge 2 Memory 3 Emotions 4 Will 5 Self-consciousness.
Consciousness is the core of the human psyche.
The formation and development of consciousness in the process of evolution took place through human labor and language, and the consciousness of, for example, a child can be formed and developed under the influence of society, in the process of learning, socialization, etc.
The ideal is a subjective image of objective reality.
The problem of the ideal: the essence and content of our consciousness are determined not by the cells of the cerebral cortex, but by the social reality external to them. This is what ideality is. a relation of representation in which an object, while remaining itself, nevertheless represents something completely different, in no way related to the nature of the representing object.
10 question Conscious and unconscious in the human psyche. The theory of psychoanalysis about the unconscious.
"Conscious" and "unconscious" are relative concepts,
expressing the features of the work of the human psyche. A person thinks about situations and makes decisions. Such actions are called conscious. However, often a person acts thoughtlessly, and sometimes he himself cannot understand why he did so. Unconscious actions suggest that a person acts on an inner impulse, but without any analysis of the situation, without clarifying the possible consequences.
The unconscious reflects such mental images that are hidden from self-observation and are indistinguishable from their objects. Unconscious mental images: dreams, unconscious instincts, complexes, reservations, hypnosis, automatisms.
Psychoanalysis by S. Freud (1856 - 1939)
Austrian psychiatrist. Main works: "The Interpretation of Dreams", "Psychology of the Human Masses and Analysis of the Interpretation of the I" ...
Freud believed there are three levels of the psyche:
1 Super - ego (Super - I); 2 ego - I (consciousness); 3 id, it (unconscious)
It is the most primitive instance that embraces everything that is genetically primary, subject to the principle of pleasure and knowing nothing about society. It is a set of instincts of repressed experiences, complexes; Freud assigned a significant place to sexual desire and aggression.
Ego - follows the principle of reality and develops mechanisms to adapt to the environment. It is an intermediary between stimuli emanating from the external environment and from the depths of the body and response motor reactions. Ego functions: self-preservation of the organism, imprinting the experience of external influences in memory ...
The super-ego is the source of moral and religious feelings, the controlling and guiding agent. There is a contradiction between the super-ego and the id. A mentally healthy person comes out by sublimation.
Sublimation is a mechanism by which the forbidden energy of instincts is transferred to other objects and discharged into an acceptable activity. in the best way sublimation is creativity.
11. Sensual and logical as human cognitive abilities. their main forms.
Sense cognition and its elements.
Sensation - a mental reflection of the properties and conditions of the external environment, arising from direct impact on the senses.
Perception - cognitive process, forming a subjective picture of the world. Reflection of an object or phenomenon as a whole with its direct impact on the senses. The result of the process of perception is the constructed image. Image- subjective vision of the real world, perceived with the help of the senses.
Representation - an image of a previously perceived object, reproduced by memory and caused in conscious sensation or perception. In a broader sense, the word performance any state of consciousness reproduced by memory is signified.
Emotion is a subjective evaluative attitude to existing or possible situations. Emotions are distinguished from affects, feelings and moods.
Intuition is the ability to feel the already existing logical chains of related information regarding the desired issue, and thus instantly find the answer to any question.
logical knowledge
Unlike sensory forms, logical means of cognition do not have to be accompanied by sensory images. The forms of logical reflection inherent in all people are concepts, judgments and conclusions.
The concept is the unity of essential properties, connections and relations of objects or phenomena reflected in thinking; thought or system of thought that distinguishes and summarizing subjects of a certain class according to certain general and, in the aggregate, specific features for them.
A person expresses his every thought with the help of judgments.
“Judgment is one of the highest forms of reflection objective objects in the mind of man. Judgments reflect objects, qualities, relationships between objects, their content.
In conclusion from several correct judgments, new knowledge about objects is derived.
“Inference is a means of knowing the hidden, inner sides and object links. A person, with the help of inference, cognizes the processes and their patterns in objects that cannot be perceived with the help of the senses.
In logical cognition, hypotheses and theories are also used as forms that fix the results of human cognitive activity.
12. The relationship of speech, thinking and language.
The thinking of an adult, normal person is inextricably linked with speech. Thought can neither arise, nor flow, nor exist outside of language, outside of speech. We think in words that we pronounce aloud or say to ourselves, that is, thinking occurs in speech form. People who are equally proficient in several languages are quite clearly aware of what language they are thinking in at any given moment. In speech, thought is not only formulated, but also formed and developed.
Special devices can register hidden speech (articulation) micro-movements of the lips, tongue, larynx, which always accompany the mental activity of a person, for example, when solving various kinds of problems. Only people who are deaf and mute from birth, who do not even know kinetic ("manual") speech, think on the basis of images.
Sometimes it may seem that a thought exists outside the verbal shell, that it is difficult to express another thought in words. But this means that the thought is still unclear to itself, that it is rather not a thought, but a vague general idea. A clear thought is always associated with a clear verbal formulation.
The opposite opinion is also wrong, that thought and speech are essentially the same thing, that thinking is speech devoid of sound, and speech is "voiced thinking." This opinion is erroneous, if only because the same thought can be expressed in different languages hundreds of different sounds. It is also known that there are homonymous words (words with the same sound, but different meanings, that is, the same word can express different thoughts, different concepts.
13. The concept of truth, its forms and criteria. Gnoseological concepts of truth.
Truth is the reflection of the object by the cognizing subject, its reproduction as it supposedly exists on its own, as if outside and independently of the cognizing subject and his consciousness. Knowledge itself (the content of knowledge) or the cognized reality itself can be called truth.
Kinds of truth
Absolute truth is the complete knowledge or source of everything, that from which everything emanated. Absolute truth contains all the qualities and characteristics that we perceive, a complete idea of the subject.
Relative truth is a philosophical concept that reflects the assertion that absolute truth difficult to achieve. According to this theory, one can only approach absolute truth, and as one approaches, new ideas are created and old ones are discarded. Theories claiming the existence of absolute truth are often called metaphysics, relative truth - relativism. Truth is a kind of relative truth. Relative truth always reflects the current level of our knowledge about the nature of phenomena.
Objective truth is the content of our knowledge that does not depend on the subject in terms of content.
14. Levels and forms of scientific knowledge. The concept of scientific revolution and scientific paradigm.
Empirical (experimental) knowledge
Empirical knowledge is obtained as a result of the application of empirical methods of knowledge - observation, measurement, experiment. This is knowledge about the visible relationships between individual events and facts in the subject area. It, as a rule, states the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of objects and phenomena. Empirical laws are often probabilistic and not strict.
Theoretical knowledge
Theoretical ideas arise on the basis of generalization of empirical data. At the same time, they influence the enrichment and change of empirical knowledge.
The theoretical level of scientific knowledge involves the establishment of laws that enable idealized perception, description and explanation of empirical situations, that is, knowledge of the essence of phenomena. Theoretical laws are more rigorous and formal in comparison with empirical ones.
A revolution in science is a period in the development of science, during which old scientific ideas are replaced partially or completely by new ones that are incompatible with the old ideas.
paradigm in science methodology- a set of values, methods, approaches, technical skills and means adopted in the scientific community within the framework of an established scientific tradition in a certain period of time.
15. Science and its role in the development of civilization. Scientism and anti-scientism.
Science is a special kind of human cognitive activity aimed at obtaining, clarifying and producing objective, systematically organized and substantiated knowledge about nature, society and thinking. The basis of this activity is the collection of scientific facts, their constant updating and systematization, critical analysis and, on this basis, the synthesis of new scientific knowledge or generalizations that not only describe observed natural or social phenomena, but also allow you to build cause-and-effect relationships, and, as a result, , - predict.
Science in a broad sense includes all the conditions and components of cognitive activity.
* separation and cooperation scientific work
* scientific institutions, experimental and laboratory equipment
* research methods
* scientific information system
* as well as the entire amount of previously accumulated scientific knowledge.
Science functions:
1. Primitive communal system; 2. Slave-owning; 3. Feudal; 4. Capitalist; 5. Communist. They differ, each, in their own way of producing material wealth and forms of class struggle. Formations follow one after another in a linear plan as the stages of development of society, from the lowest to the highest. On the basis of the Marxist theory of formations, a formational approach has developed in historical science.
Civilization approach in historical science.
The essence of the civilizational approach is that the study and coverage of history is based on ideas about society as a civilization. And it is based on the theory of civilizations, its ideas. The civilizational approach denies a single history of mankind and presents history as the existence of closed, separate entities.
The theory of civilization received scientific development in the works of its founders -
Danilevsky, Spengler, Toynbee.
20. Man as a subject of philosophy. Modern anthropological theories.
In philosophy, a person has always been considered in the unity of 3 modes of his being - this is the body, soul and spirit. Body is the physical substance of human life, acting as an element of nature. In Antiquity, the body is a microcosm, in modern times it is a mechanism, and then the body was understood as an organism. The soul in Antiquity is the mind, conscience, and moral principle in man. For modern philosophy the soul is the vital center of the body, which is the force that, being itself immortal, outlines the term of bodily existence and the individualizing property of a person in society, described in philosophy through the problems of free will, creativity, fate and fate.
In the religious interpretation, the spirit is a connection with God.
The philosophical approach to a person involves the identification of his essence, the determination of the forms of his activity, the disclosure of various historically existing forms of his being. Philosophy reveals the place of a person in the world and his attitude to the world, analyzes the question of what a person can become by deploying his capabilities, what is the ratio of biological and social in him, what is a person as a person, what is the structure of personality, what is the essence of socio-psychological personality types, etc.
Anthropological theories:
1. Ernst Cassirer. Man is a symbolic animal, because only he builds a symbolic environment between himself and nature. History, language, science, religion - all this is a symbolic medium. It is only thanks to this environment that we can get to know each other.
2. Max Scheler. Man is a free open being, as a personality a man is open to the world and this is his strength, as a biological organism a man is vulnerable. Unlike an animal that always says yes to the world, a person is able to say no. Man is an eternal Protestant, an eternal Faust.
3.Eric Fromm. "Escape from freedom"; "To have or to be." The spontaneity of human existence, as it were, re-creates man himself not only spiritually and existentially, but also as a human species. Everything changes in a person - both his corporeality and his inherent subjectivity. Man is not what he is, he is what he can become.
21. Biopsychosocial nature of man.
biological It is expressed in physiological, genetic phenomena, as well as in neuro-cerebral, electrochemical and some other processes of the human body. Under mental the inner mental and spiritual world of a person is understood - his conscious and unconscious processes, will, experiences, memory, character, temperament, etc.
Man is a social being: in society, man masters a straight gait, articulate speech, and thinking.
Man is an embodied spirit and spiritualized corporeality, a spiritual-material being with reason. And at the same time, it is the subject of labor, social relations and communication through articulate speech. By his organismic level, he is included in the natural connection of phenomena and is subject to natural necessity, and by his personal level he is turned to social being, to society, to the history of mankind, to culture.
Man is born as a biosocial unity. But he is born with incompletely formed anatomical and physiological systems, which are completed in the conditions of society. The mechanism of heredity, which determines the biological side of a person, includes his social essence.
Heredity supplies the child not only with purely biological properties and instincts. He initially turns out to be the owner of the ability to imitate and learn. Thus, the child is born exactly as human. And yet, at the moment of birth, he still needs to learn to become a man. He is introduced into the world of people by communication with them, it is this that forms his psyche, morality, culture, social behavior.
Conscious mental phenomena are formed in vivo as a result of upbringing, training, active mastery of the language, the world of culture.
So, a person is an integral unity of the biological (organismic), mental and social levels, which are formed from two sources - natural and social, hereditary and acquired in vivo. At the same time, the human individual is a unity of the biological, mental and social, leading to the emergence of a new qualitative stage - the human personality. .
22. The essence of man and the meaning of his being.
The meaning of life, the meaning of being is a philosophical and spiritual problem related to determining the ultimate goal of existence, the purpose of humanity, man as a biological species, one of the main worldview concepts that is of great importance for the formation of the spiritual and moral image of the individual.
The question of the meaning of life can also be understood as a subjective assessment of the life lived and the compliance of the results achieved with the original intentions, as a person’s understanding of the content and direction of his life, his place in the world, as the problem of a person’s impact on the surrounding reality and setting goals by a person that go beyond his life. . In this case, the need to find an answer to the questions is implied:
"What are the values of life?"
"What is the purpose of (someone's) life?" (or the most common goal of a person's life as such, a person in general),
“Why (For what) should I live?”.
Ideas about the meaning of life are formed in the course of people's activities and depend on their social status, the content of the problems being solved, their way of life, world outlook, and a specific historical situation. In favorable conditions, a person can see the meaning of his life in achieving happiness and well-being; in a hostile environment of existence, life may lose its value and meaning for him.
23. Man as a person. The ratio in it of freedom, responsibility and creativity.
Personality is a stable system of socially significant features that characterize an individual as a member of a particular society or community.
The essential characteristic of the personality and its main features are determined by:
the content of a person's worldview, his psychological essence;
the degree of integrity of the worldview and beliefs, the absence or presence of contradictions in them, reflecting the opposing interests of different strata of society;
the degree of a person's awareness of his place in society;
the content and nature of needs and interests, the stability and ease of their switchability, their narrowness and versatility;
the specifics of the correlation and manifestation of various personal qualities.
Freedom is the ability to choose an option and implement (ensure) the outcome of an event. The absence of such a choice and the implementation of the choice is tantamount to the absence of freedom - lack of freedom.
In ethics, "freedom" is associated with the presence of a person's free will. Free will imposes on a person a responsibility and credits his words and deeds. An act is considered moral only if it is performed by free will, is the free will of the subject. In this sense, ethics is aimed at a person's awareness of his freedom and the responsibility associated with it.
Will - the ability and ability to choose the goal of an activity and the internal efforts that are necessary for its implementation. Will is not physical activity, not emotional activity and not always conscious human activity; but an activity that always reflects the principles of morality and norms of the individual and indicates the value characteristics of the goal of the chosen action. Man, carrying out volitional actions, opposes impulsive desires, forming a strong personality .
Mind is the ability of a material system to realize its existence in the environment and display, transmit in the form (form) of signs and sign systems; it is the ability to measure the interdependence and interaction of material systems, defining patterns; it is the ability, using certain laws, to act and change the environment in accordance with one's needs.
24. The problem of anthroposociogenesis. Modern versions of the origin of man and society.
Anthroposociogenesis is the process of the birth of a person as a biological species and the emergence of society.
Anthropologists are preoccupied with finding the "missing link" in biological evolution from the ape-like ancestor of man to Homo sapiens. Philosophers seek to identify and describe the "break in gradualness" itself - the revolutionary leap that took place in the process of human development.
Approaches to the problem:
1.Evolutionary. Since the 19th century, science has been dominated by the concept of the origin of man from the highly developed ancestors of modern apes, which follows from Darwin's theory of evolution. Apes and humans share a common ancestor. Scientists named it Dryopithecus (Latin for “tree monkey”). Then Australopithecus appeared (in Latin - “southern monkeys”) that lived in the steppes of Africa, took two more steps from animal to man. Their achievements were upright walking and the gradual loss of thick wool. The next in the evolutionary ladder is already the “first man”, the first representative of the Homo genus. This is a skilled man (Homo habilis). Another branch of the evolution of the Homo genus, which, according to biologists, is higher than the “handy man”, is the erect man (Homo erectus). the species to which the people living today also belong is Homo sapiens.
2. Creationism. Views based on the fact that man was created by God or gods arose much earlier than the materialistic theories of spontaneous generation of life and the evolution of monkeys into humans. In various philosophical, theological teachings of antiquity, the act of human creation was attributed to various deities.
25. Axiology. The concept of value. Classification of values. Basic value orientations.
Axiology is a philosophical doctrine of values and their nature.
Value is a concept that indicates the cultural, social or personal significance (significance) of phenomena and facts of reality. All the diversity of the world can act as subject values, i.e. evaluate from the point of view of good and evil, truth and falsehood, beautiful and ugly, fair and unfair, etc. Such values include objects of material, spiritual activity of people, social relations and natural phenomena included in their circle, which have a positive meaning for a person and are able to satisfy their diverse needs. Another type of values are subjective values, which include attitudes, assessments, requirements, prohibitions, etc., expressed in the form of norms. They act as guidelines and criteria for human activity. At the center of understanding values is the value attitude of a person to the world, the sides of which are subject values and subject values.
The values of the personality form its value orientations, which mean the totality of the most important qualities of the internal structure of the personality, which are especially significant for it. Specific system value orientations and their hierarchy act as regulators of personality development. They serve as a criterion for the norms and rules of behavior of the individual, as the assimilation of which occurs its socialization.
Classification of values. 1. Values-goals, or higher (absolute) values. 2. Values-means (instrumental values). 3. Positive and negative values (social significance and consequences of their implementation). 4. Material and spiritual values.
The highest and absolute value is the person himself, his life, as well as the ultimate and most common values for people, such as the meaning of life, goodness, justice, beauty, truth, freedom, etc.
26.Philosophical understanding of culture. Types and forms of culture.
27.Global problems of mankind and ways to resolve them.
1. The threat of a thermonuclear fire.
by the most in a simple way The solution to all conflicts is the use of force. In light of the approaching environmental problems, resolving issues with weapons is the easiest. But, when using weapons, you need to be very careful, since the stocks of weapons are enough to destroy life on earth dozens of times. One of the main methods of influence is the use of nuclear weapons.
Now there is information that the danger of a direct nuclear collision has decreased, but at the same time it has not disappeared, but even increased the threat of a blind technological "accident", as it was in Chernobyl. In addition, there is a spread of nuclear technology in the countries of the "third world".
Any conflict is fraught with the danger of a chain reaction. Therefore, the conflict must be resolved only peacefully.
2. The proximity of an ecological catastrophe.
The reserves of resources, especially energy carriers, are rapidly declining on earth, and at the rate of accelerating the development of mankind, their reserves will last no more than 50 years. Now we need to look for and introduce qualitatively new sources of energy, while there is still a supply of energy resources. The other side of the energy crisis is that electricity consumption is increasing by a factor of 2 approximately every
15 years. And soon the moment may come when artificial energy will begin to influence the structure of the planet's heat balance. There will be an irreversible melting of glaciers, an increase in the level of the ocean by many tens of meters and, consequently, the flooding of the most fruitful places on the planet. As a result of warming, the climate of the planet will change, and most of the planet will become an arid semi-desert. With a decrease in the average temperature of the planet by 3-4 degrees, it will lead to a new ice age. Another environmental problem is the rapid decrease in soil cover.
3. The danger hanging over human corporality.
We are facing the danger of the destruction of man as a species, the deformation of his bodily organs. The shattering of the gene pool, the dashing steps of genetic engineering. The genetic burden of the human population is growing. A sharp weakening of the human immune apparatus under the influence of xenobiotics and numerous stresses is recorded everywhere. Another problem is AIDS. Drug addiction and alcoholism are also a big problem.
4. The crisis of human spirituality.
A large flow of information has led to the fact that a person knows more than he can invent, fantasize. There is no need for a person to think, to conjecture, because the mass media have already done this for him.
To overcome this problem, you need to be vigilant and warn other people about the danger; we must assimilate information about life; it is necessary to properly organize the planning of the use of natural resources; it is necessary to consciously regulate the growth of our planet; it is necessary to reduce spending on military spending and invest more to eradicate poverty, hunger, disease, etc.; mutual understanding is needed; to put the main production forces and resources under strict control; the development of new orientations in relation to ourselves.
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Ontology (the doctrine of being);
Human;
Society.
Cosmocentrism;
Theocentrism;
Anthropocentrism.
The subject is the range of questions that philosophy studies. The general structure of the subject of philosophy, philosophical knowledge consists of four main sections:
Ontology (the doctrine of being);
Gnoseology (the doctrine of knowledge);
Human;
Society.
Basic functions: 1) synthesis of knowledge and creation of a unified picture of the world corresponding to a certain level of development of science, culture and historical experience; 2) substantiation, justification and analysis of the worldview; 3) development of a general methodology for cognition and human activity in the surrounding world. Each science studies its own range of problems. To do this, he develops his own concepts, which are applied in a strictly defined area for a more or less limited range of phenomena. However, none of the sciences, except for F., deals with the special question of what is "necessity", "accident", etc. although he can use them in his area. Such concepts are extremely broad, general and universal. They reflect the universal connections, interactions and conditions for the existence of any things and are called categories (see glossary). Main question: The main tasks or problems relate to clarifying the relationship between human consciousness and the outside world, between thinking and the being around us.
1. The main specificity of philosophical knowledge lies in its duality, since it:
It has a lot in common with scientific knowledge - the subject, methods, logical-conceptual apparatus;
However, it is not scientific knowledge in its pure form. The main difference between philosophy and all other sciences is that philosophy is a theoretical worldview, the ultimate generalization of knowledge previously accumulated by mankind. The subject of philosophy is wider than the subject of study of any individual science, philosophy generalizes, integrates other sciences, but does not absorb them, does not include all scientific knowledge, does not stand above it. (Philosophy is a special, scientific and theoretical type of worldview. The philosophical worldview differs from the religious and mythological in that it:
Based on knowledge (and not on faith or fiction);
Reflexively (there is a focus of thought on itself);
Logical (has internal unity and system);
It relies on clear concepts and categories. Thus, philosophy is the highest level and type of worldview, characterized by rationality, systemicity, logic and theoretical formulation.
5. Philosophy as a worldview has gone through three main stages of its evolution:
Cosmocentrism;
Theocentrism;
Anthropocentrism.
Cosmocentrism is a philosophical worldview, which is based on the explanation of the surrounding world, natural phenomena through the power, omnipotence, infinity of external forces - the Cosmos, and according to which everything that exists depends on the Cosmos and cosmic cycles (this philosophy was characteristic of ancient india, Ancient China, other countries of the East, as well as Ancient Greece). which is centered on the problem of man (Europe of the Renaissance, modern and contemporary times, modern philosophical schools).)
The subject is the range of questions that philosophy studies. The general structure of the subject of philosophy, philosophical knowledge consists of four main sections:
Ontology (the doctrine of being);
Gnoseology (the doctrine of knowledge);
Human;
Society.
Basic functions: 1) synthesis of knowledge and creation of a unified picture of the world corresponding to a certain level of development of science, culture and historical experience; 2) substantiation, justification and analysis of the worldview; 3) development of a general methodology for cognition and human activity in the surrounding world. Each science studies its own range of problems. To do this, he develops his own concepts, which are applied in a strictly defined area for a more or less limited range of phenomena. However, none of the sciences, except for F., deals with the special question of what is "necessity", "accident", etc. although he can use them in his area. Such concepts are extremely broad, general and universal. They reflect the universal connections, interactions and conditions for the existence of any things and are called categories (see glossary). Main question: The main tasks or problems relate to clarifying the relationship between human consciousness and the outside world, between thinking and the being around us.
1. The main specificity of philosophical knowledge lies in its duality, since it:
It has a lot in common with scientific knowledge - the subject, methods, logical-conceptual apparatus;
However, it is not scientific knowledge in its pure form. The main difference between philosophy and all other sciences is that philosophy is a theoretical worldview, the ultimate generalization of knowledge previously accumulated by mankind. The subject of philosophy is wider than the subject of study of any individual science, philosophy generalizes, integrates other sciences, but does not absorb them, does not include all scientific knowledge, does not stand above it. (Philosophy is a special, scientific and theoretical type of worldview. The philosophical worldview differs from the religious and mythological in that it:
Based on knowledge (and not on faith or fiction);
Reflexively (there is a focus of thought on itself);
Logical (has internal unity and system);
It relies on clear concepts and categories. Thus, philosophy is the highest level and type of worldview, characterized by rationality, systemicity, logic and theoretical formulation.
5. Philosophy as a worldview has gone through three main stages of its evolution:
Cosmocentrism;
Theocentrism;
Anthropocentrism.
Cosmocentrism is a philosophical worldview, which is based on the explanation of the surrounding world, natural phenomena through the power, omnipotence, infinity of external forces - the Cosmos, and according to which everything that exists depends on the Cosmos and cosmic cycles (this philosophy was characteristic of Ancient India, Ancient China, other countries of the East, as well as Ancient Greece). (Europe of the Renaissance, modern and modern times, modern philosophical schools).)
