Types of non-scientific knowledge examples. Scientific and non-scientific knowledge
In addition to scientific knowledge, in opposition to it, the so-called non-scientific knowledge is singled out. The concept of "non-scientific knowledge" is used in two senses: 1) non-scientific knowledge combines all types of cognitive activity that are not proper scientific activity (that is, everything that is not science); 2) non-scientific knowledge is identified with parascientific (or near-scientific) knowledge(with parapsychology, alchemy and similar phenomena, where the language of science, scientific means and devices are used, but, nevertheless, this is not science).
Non-scientific knowledge in the first sense includes the following types or forms:
1. everyday practical knowledge, which is carried out in Everyday life person. It gives elementary (simple) information about nature, about people, their living conditions, social connections, etc. It is based on the experience of everyday human practice;
2. Game cognition is the most important element of cognitive activity not only for children, but also for adults (adults play the so-called "business" games, sports games, play on stage). During the game, the individual carries out active cognitive activity, acquires new knowledge. Currently, the concept of a game is widely used in mathematics, economics, cybernetics, where game models and game scenarios are increasingly used in which various options the course of complex processes and the solution of scientific and practical problems.
3. Mythological knowledge - it played an important role primarily in the initial stages of human history. Its specificity is that the myth is a fantastic reflection of reality in the human mind. Within the framework of mythology, certain knowledge was developed about nature, the cosmos, about the people themselves, about the conditions of their existence, forms of communication, etc. Recently, philosophers have argued that a myth is a kind of model of the world that allows you to transfer and consolidate the experience of generations of people.
4. Artistic knowledge - this form of knowledge has received the most developed expression in art. Although it does not specifically solve cognitive problems, it contains a fairly large cognitive potential. Artistically mastering reality, art (painting, music, theater, etc.) satisfies the needs of people (the need for beauty and knowledge). In any work of art, there is always certain knowledge about different people and their characters, about countries and peoples, about various historical periods etc.
5. Religious knowledge is a kind of knowledge that combines an emotional and sensual attitude towards the world with faith in the supernatural. Religious performances contain certain knowledge about reality. Sufficiently wise and deep treasury of knowledge accumulated by people over the course of millennia are, for example, the Bible, the Koran and other sacred books.
6. Philosophical knowledge is a specific kind of knowledge, very close to scientific knowledge. Like science, philosophy relies on reason, but at the same time philosophical problems are such that it is impossible to get an unambiguous answer to them. Philosophical knowledge, in contrast to scientific knowledge, does not simply build an objective picture of the world, but necessarily, as it were, “fits” a person into this picture, tries to determine the relationship of a person to the world, which science does not do.
In the second sense, the concept of "unscientific knowledge" is identified with the so-called parascientific knowledge. Parascience claims to be scientific, uses scientific terminology, but is not scientific knowledge in reality. Parascientific knowledge includes the so-called occult sciences: alchemy, astrology, parapsychology, paraphysics, etc. Their existence is due to the fact that scientific knowledge cannot yet provide answers to all questions in which people are interested. Biology, medicine, other sciences, for example, have not yet discovered ways to extend human life, get rid of diseases, protect against destructive forces nature. People rely on parascience to find solutions to vital problems. These hopes are supported by dishonest people who seek to profit from human misfortune, as well as by means mass media(newspapers, television, etc.), greedy for sensationalism. Suffice it to recall the appearances on radio and television of various psychics, psychotherapists, "charged" water, etc. Many people have been receptive to these "miracles."
In addition to feelings and reason, recognized by science as the main human abilities that allow one to gain new knowledge, there are also non-scientific ways of knowing - intuition, wit, faith, mystical insight.
Intuition- the ability to acquire new knowledge “on a whim”, “in insight”. It is usually associated with the unconscious. This means that the process of solving an important problem may take place on a non-conscious level. For example, as in the case of Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev (1834-1907), who in a dream saw the principle of constructing the Periodic Table of Elements. However, solving the problem in intuitive knowledge does not come by itself, but on the basis of past experience and in the process of intense reflection on the problem. Obviously, a person who does not seriously deal with a problem will never solve it by "insight". Therefore, intuition is on the border of scientific and non-scientific forms of knowledge.
Wit - creative ability to notice the points of contact of heterogeneous phenomena and combine them in a single, radically new solution. Most theories (as well as scientific inventions) are based precisely on subtle and ingenious solutions. Wit in its mechanisms belongs to the ways of artistic knowledge of the world.
Faith is in religion a way of knowing the "true world" and own soul. True faith creates a supernatural connection between man and truth. Moreover, the "creeds" themselves in any religion are recognized as indisputable truths, and belief in them makes sensory and rational verification unnecessary. “I believe in order to know,” said the medieval scholastic Anselm of Canterbury (1033-1109).
mystical insight in mystical teachings is regarded as a path to true knowledge, a breakthrough from the "prison" of the reality surrounding a person into a supernatural, true being. In the mystical teachings, there are numerous spiritual practices (meditations, mysteries), which in the end should provide a person with a new level of knowledge.
Science is skeptical about non-scientific forms of cognition, but some researchers believe that cognition should not be limited only to feelings and reason.
In addition to methods, it is possible to distinguish types of scientific knowledge.
Ordinary practical knowledge is based on common sense, worldly intelligence and life experience and is necessary for correct orientation in repetitive situations of everyday life, for physical work.
I. Kant called the cognitive ability that provides such activity, reason.
mythological knowledge tries to explain the world in fantastic and emotional images. In the early stages of development, mankind did not yet have enough experience to understand the true causes of many phenomena, so they were explained with the help of myths and legends, without taking into account cause and effect relationships. For all its fantasticness, the myth performed important functions: within its capabilities, it interpreted the questions of the origin of the world and man and explained natural phenomena, thereby satisfying the human desire for knowledge, provided certain models for activity, defining the rules of behavior, passing on experience and traditional values from generation per generation.
religious knowledge is thinking on the basis of dogmas recognized as irrefutable. Reality is viewed through the prism of "creeds", the main of which is the requirement to believe in the supernatural. As a rule, religion is focused on spiritual self-knowledge, occupying a niche in which both ordinary knowledge and scientific knowledge are powerless. Religion, being a form of obtaining and expanding spiritual experience, has had a significant impact on the development of mankind.
Artistic knowledge is based not on scientific concepts, but on integral artistic images and allows you to feel and sensually express - in literature, music, painting, sculpture - the subtle shades of spiritual movements, the individuality of a person, feelings and emotions, the uniqueness of every moment of a person's life and the nature surrounding him. The artistic image, as it were, complements the scientific concept. If science tries to show the objective side of the world, then art (along with religion) is its personally colored component.
philosophical knowledge, considering the world as an integrity, it is primarily a synthesis of scientific and artistic types of knowledge. Philosophy thinks not in terms and images, but in "image-notions" or concepts. On the one hand, these concepts are close to scientific concepts, since they are expressed in terms, and on the other hand, to artistic images, since these concepts are not as strict and unambiguous as in science; rather, they are symbolic. Philosophy can also use elements of religious knowledge ( religious philosophy), although in itself it does not require a person to believe in the supernatural.
Unlike these types, scientific knowledge involves an explanation, a search for patterns in each area of its research, requires strict evidence, a clear and objective description of facts in the form of a coherent and consistent system. At the same time, science is not completely opposed to everyday practical knowledge, accepting some elements of experience, and worldly experience itself in modern times takes into account many of the data of science.
However, scientific knowledge is not immune from errors. History has proved the illegitimacy of many hypotheses that science previously operated on (about the world ether, phlogiston, etc.). However, science does not claim to be absolute knowledge. Its knowledge always contains some part of the delusion, which is reduced with the development of science. Science is directed towards Search truth, not the possession of it.
It is in this direction of science that the main criterion that distinguishes it from numerous fakes is laid: any claim to the possession of a single and absolute truth is unscientific.
The reasons for the popularity of pseudoscientific theories lie, on the one hand, in the general crisis of modern culture and the search for new values, and on the other hand, in the attraction of a person to a miracle. More diverse are the personal reasons that make a person engage in pseudoscience: the desire for fame or money, a sincere delusion or an order. Based on this, the following definition can be given.
Pseudoscience is falsification of scientific data for political, religious, economic or personal purposes.
Pseudoscience uses scientific terminology in its constructions, acts on behalf of various organizations and "academies", disguises its activities with academic degrees and titles, makes extensive use of mass media and government structures, carries out a wide publishing. Therefore, it is often difficult for a person (even a specialist) to find criteria for distinguishing pseudoscience from real science. Nevertheless, some general indicators of pseudoscience can be identified. Usually unscientific:
about concepts aimed at negating all previous science. As a rule, even the most "crazy" concept, if it is correct, is consistent with a number of laws and previously confirmed fundamental principles. For example, Einstein's theory of relativity did not abolish Newton's mechanics, but only limited it to certain conditions;
o universal and global theories - from a new theory of the structure of the Universe to the invention of a "cure for all diseases". In an age of ever-increasing amounts of information, it is difficult to be an expert in all fields and take into account all the factors necessary for a global "theory of everything"; such theories are also contradicted by the increasingly perceived complexity of the world. Such ideas are also usually distinguished by excessive pathos and self-praise;
about theories, characterized by vagueness and incomprehensibility of evidence. The most complex scientific theories can be explained in simple terms; if the concepts are fundamentally undefinable, then most likely such vagueness masks the lack of an evidence base;
o unsystematic and internally contradictory theories, which indicates the illiteracy of the author. The reverse is also true: illiterate work is usually meaningless;
about a theory that mixes scientific terms and concepts from the sphere of mysticism or religion (for example, “karma”, “grace”, “cosmic vibrations”, etc.) or gives ordinary concepts a “secret” meaning (Light, Beginning, Mind, Nature etc.);
o untestable theories because they are based on non-rational belief. For example, links to cosmic mind, the harmony of the universe or revelation are not subject to scientific verification.
Proponents of pseudoscience often put forward new hypotheses, not to gain new knowledge, but to further support their theories.
Creationists (supporters of the concept that the world was created by God) correct their hypothesis whenever science finds another refutation of the concept of divine creation of the world. For example, the findings of paleontologists confirm evolutionary theory: The fossil record shows a succession of species over millions of years. Creationists responded by theorizing that the fossils are the remains of animals that died during the global flood, and large and heavy bones (in particular, bones of dinosaurs) are in the lower layers, because during the flood they sank deeper into the silt under the weight of their weight. .
In response to evidence that the universe began more than 10 billion years ago (according to the creation hypothesis, the world is only 6-10 thousand years old), creationists respond that time is not something constant: it can slow down or speed up according to divine command.
In general, if all the efforts of the supporters of an idea are aimed at defending the theory, and not at searching for new knowledge, this can serve as an indicator of the unscientific nature of the idea (often all the subsequent activities of the "creators" of such an idea come down to the constant justification of ideas or to complaints of persecution from aspects of official science).
Real science has a predictive power, i.e. capable of predicting new phenomena, and not just explaining long-known ones.
Application of the theory of universal gravitation by Isaac Newton (1643-1727) to the calculation of planetary orbits solar system allowed astronomers to theoretically predict the existence of the planet Neptune. Later, the planet was actually discovered in the predicted orbit. The possibility of such discoveries is an important characteristic of true science, which does not try to defend old theories, but is aimed at searching for the new.
The presented indicators of pseudoscience are rather conditional and are not true in all cases. A scientist can really come up with a new general theory, he may be undeservedly persecuted, etc. But if his theory corresponds to several of the above indicators at once, then its scientific character is more than doubtful.
Pseudoscience usually takes the form of esotericism, mysticism, sectarianism, falsifications and speculations, informational and political orders, etc. It is rarely harmless: almost all of its forms have a negative impact on the human psyche. Therefore, tolerance towards it should not extend to too wide limits: the mental health of society, undermined by faith in pseudoscience, is no less important for the future than physical health.
WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW
- 1 TO scientific ways knowledge refers to the senses and the mind, to unscientific- intuition, wit, faith, mystical insight.
- 2. To the main types of knowledge include everyday practical, religious, scientific, artistic and philosophical.
- 3. pseudoscience is the falsification of scientific data for political, religious, economic or personal purposes.
QUESTIONS
- 1. What are the main differences between scientific knowledge and non-scientific knowledge? Is scientific knowledge free from error?
- 2. List the main signs of pseudoscience. Which of them do you consider the most important?
- 3. Give your examples of pseudoscience. What indicators indicate that the theories you named are pseudoscientific?
- Phlogiston (from the Greek phlogistos - combustible), according to the prevailing in chemistry of the 18th century. according to ideas, - a special fiery matter contained in all combustible substances. Later, the phlogiston theory was replaced by the oxygen theory.
Cognition can be divided into scientific and non-scientific, and the latter - into pre-scientific, ordinary and extra-scientific, or para-scientific.
Pre-scientific knowledge is a historical stage in the development of knowledge that precedes scientific knowledge. At this stage, some cognitive techniques, forms of sensory and rational cognition are formed, on the basis of which more developed types of cognitive activity are formed.
Ordinary and parascientific knowledge exist along with scientific.
Ordinary, or everyday, is called knowledge based on the observation and practical development of nature, on the life experience accumulated by many generations. Without denying science, it does not use its means - methods, language, categorical apparatus, however, it gives certain knowledge about the observed natural phenomena, moral relations, principles of education, etc. special group everyday knowledge make up the so-called folk sciences: ethnoscience, meteorology, pedagogy, etc. Mastering this knowledge requires a long study and considerable experience, they contain practically useful, time-tested knowledge, but these are not sciences in the full sense of the word.
Extra-scientific (para-scientific) includes knowledge that claims to be scientific, uses scientific terminology, and is incompatible with science. These are the so-called occult sciences: alchemy, astrology, magic, etc.
The science- a system of objective knowledge tested in practice with its own methods, ways of substantiating knowledge.
The science- a social institution, a set of institutions, organizations involved in the development of new knowledge.
scientific knowledge- highly specialized human activity for the development, systematization, verification of knowledge in order to use it effectively.
Thus, the main aspects of the existence of science are:
1. complex, contradictory process of obtaining new knowledge;
2. the result of this process, i.e. combining the acquired knowledge into an integral, developing organic system;
3. a social institution with all its infrastructure: the organization of science, scientific institutions, etc.; morality of science, professional associations of scientists, finance, scientific equipment, scientific information system;
4. special area human activity and an essential element of culture.
Consider the main features of scientific knowledge, or the criteria of scientificity:
1. The main task is to discover the objective laws of reality - natural, social, the laws of cognition itself, thinking, etc. Hence the orientation of the study mainly on the general, essential properties of the subject, its necessary characteristics and their expression in the system of abstraction, in the form of idealized objects. If this is not the case, then there is no science, because the very concept of scientificity presupposes the discovery of laws, a deepening into the essence of the phenomena being studied. This is the main feature of science, the main feature.
2. On the basis of knowledge of the laws of functioning and development of the objects under study, science predicts the future in order to further the practical development of reality. The focus of science on the study of not only objects that are transformed in today's practice, but also those that can become the subject of practical development in the future, is an important distinguishing feature of scientific knowledge.
3. An essential feature of scientific knowledge is its consistency, that is, the totality of knowledge put in order on the basis of certain theoretical principles, which unite individual knowledge into an integral organic system. Knowledge turns into scientific when the purposeful collection of facts, their description and generalization is brought to the level of their inclusion in the system of concepts, in the composition of the theory.
4. Science is characterized by constant methodological reflection. This means that in it the study of objects, the identification of their specificity, properties and relationships is always accompanied by an awareness of the methods and techniques by which these objects are studied.
5. The immediate goal and highest value of scientific knowledge is objective truth, comprehended mainly by rational means and methods, but, of course, not without the participation of living contemplation and non-rational means. From here feature scientific knowledge - objectivity, the elimination of subjective moments inherent in the subject of research for the implementation of the "purity" of its consideration.
6. Scientific knowledge is a complex, contradictory process of production, reproduction of new knowledge that forms an integral developing system of concepts, theories, hypotheses, laws and other ideal forms fixed in a language - natural or (more characteristically) artificial: mathematical symbolism, chemical formulas and etc. Scientific knowledge does not simply fix its elements in language, but continuously reproduces them on its own basis, forms them in accordance with its own norms and principles.
7. In the process of scientific knowledge, such specific material means as devices, tools, and other so-called "scientific equipment" are used, which are often very complex and expensive. Science is more characterized by the use of such ideal means and methods for the study of its objects and itself as modern logic, mathematical methods, dialectics, etc.
8.Scientific knowledge is characterized by strict evidence, the validity of the results obtained, the reliability of the conclusions. At the same time, there are many hypotheses, guesses, assumptions, probabilistic judgments, etc. That is why the logical and methodological training of researchers, their philosophical culture, constant improvement of one's thinking, the ability to correctly apply its laws and principles.
In modern methodology, different levels of scientific criteria are distinguished, referring to them - in addition to those named - such as the formal consistency of knowledge, its experimental verifiability, reproducibility, openness to criticism, freedom from bias, rigor, etc.
Social Features science:
1) cognitive (accumulation of knowledge about the world, description and explanation of the phenomena of the world),
2) practical (application scientific knowledge on practice),
3) prognostic (determination of trends in the development of processes and phenomena),
4) worldview (the formation of a scientific picture of the world).
The structure of scientific knowledge can be represented in its various sections and, accordingly, in the totality of its specific elements.
From the point of view of the interaction between the object and the subject of scientific knowledge, the latter includes four necessary components in their unity:
1) Subjects of scientific knowledge– researcher, scientific team, society as a whole.
2) Objects of scientific knowledge- man, society, nature. The subject of research is some facet of the object, it is a phenomenon or process of one or another area of reality, to which the cognitive activity of the subject is directed.
For example, one and the same object - a person - can be studied by different sciences (physiology, anatomy, psychology, history, literature).
What sciences study society? (history, political science, sociology, economics, etc.)
3) Means of scientific knowledge- a system of methods and techniques that are used in the process of cognition. This will be discussed in today's lesson.
4) The purpose of scientific knowledge- description, explanation and prediction of the phenomena of the surrounding world, as well as the application of scientific knowledge in practical activities.
5) Its specific language - natural and artificial (signs, symbols).
With a different "section" of scientific knowledge, it is necessary to distinguish between the following elements of its structure: a) factual material, from empirical experience; b) the results of its initial conceptual generalization in concepts and other abstractions; c) fact-based problems and scientific assumptions; d) laws, theories “growing” out of them, f) socio-cultural, value and worldview foundations; g) methods, norms of scientific knowledge, regulations and imperatives; h) thinking style and some other elements
scientific picture world - an integral system of ideas about the general properties and patterns of reality, built as a result of generalization and synthesis of fundamental scientific concepts and principles.
There are 6 criteria for scientific knowledge:
1. systematic knowledge - scientific knowledge always has a systematic, orderly character;
2. target - any scientific knowledge is the result of a scientific goal;
3. activity - scientific knowledge is always the result of the activities of scientists to achieve the set scientific goal;
4. rationalistic - scientific knowledge is always based on reason (in the traditions of the East, the priority of intuition as a supersensory perception of reality has been established);
5. experimental - scientific knowledge must be confirmed experimentally;
6. mathematical - mathematical apparatus should be applicable to scientific data.
The knowledge accumulated by people has three levels: ordinary, empirical (experimental) and theoretical (the level of scientific knowledge). result scientific activity are scientific knowledge, which, depending on the content and application, are divided into:
1. factual - are a set of systematized facts of objective reality;
2. theoretical (fundamental) - theories that explain the processes occurring in objective reality;
3. technical and applied (technologies) - knowledge about the practical application of the acquired knowledge;
4. practically applied (praxeological) - knowledge about the economic effect obtained as a result of the application of scientific achievements.
The forms of scientific knowledge are: scientific concepts, programs, typologies, classifications, hypotheses, theories.
Any solution scientific problem includes the promotion of various conjectures, assumptions. A scientific assumption put forward to eliminate a situation of uncertainty is called a hypothesis. This is not certain, but probable knowledge. The truth or falsity of such knowledge needs to be tested. The process of establishing the truth of a hypothesis is called verification. A hypothesis confirmed experimentally is called a theory.
The main criteria by which these levels differ are as follows:
1) the nature of the subject of study. Emp and the research theorist can cognize one objective reality, but its vision, its representation in knowledge will be given in different ways. Emp research is basically focused on the study of phenomena and their dependencies. At the level of emper cognition, essential connections are not distinguished yet in their pure form, but they are, as it were, highlighted in phenomena. At the level of theories of knowledge, essential connections are singled out in their pure form. The task of the theory is to recreate all these m / y relations with laws and thus reveal the essence of the object. It is necessary to distinguish between empirical dependence and theoretical law. The first is the result of an inductive generalization of experience and is a probabilistic-true knowledge. The second is always true knowledge. Thus, empirical research studies phenomena and their correlations. In these correlations, it can catch the manifestation of the law, but in its pure form it is given only as a result of theoretical research.
2) type of research tools used. Empirical research is based on the direct practical interaction of the researcher with the object under study. Therefore, the means of imperial research directly include instruments, instrumental installations, and other means of real observation. In the theory of research, there is no direct practical interaction with objects. At this level, the object can be studied only indirectly, in thought experiment. In addition to the means associated with experiments, conceptual means are also used, in which empirical means and theoretical terms interact. language. The meaning of empirical terms are special abstractions that could be called empirical objects (real objects with rigidly fixed features). The main means of research theorists are theoretical ideal objects. These are special abstractions in which the meaning of theoretical terms (the ideal product) is contained.
At the empirical level of knowledge, methods such as observation, comparison, measurement, experiment are used.
Observation- this is a purposeful, systematic perception of reality, which always involves setting the task and the necessary activity, as well as certain experience, knowledge of the cognizing subject. In the course of observation, various instruments are usually used.
Comparison, which involves identifying similarities and differences in the objects under study, which allows you to draw certain conclusions by analogy.
Method measurements is a further logical development of the comparison method and means the procedure for determining the numerical value of a quantity by means of a unit of measurement.
Experiment when a researcher studies an object by creating artificial conditions for it, which are necessary to obtain the necessary information about the properties of this object.
At the level of theoretical knowledge - historical and logical, idealization, mathematization, logical formalization, etc.
3)results are knowledge. Emp cognition involves the formation on the basis of observational data - a scientific fact. scientific fact arises as a result of a very complex processing of observational data: their comprehension, understanding, interpretation. Forms of rational knowledge (concepts, judgments, inferences) dominate in theoretical knowledge. However, theory always contains sensory-visual components. We can only say that at the lower levels of empirical knowledge, the sensual dominates, and at the theoretical level, the rational.
In reality, the empirical and the theory of knowledge always interact.
Along with scientific knowledge, there are also various types of non-scientific knowledge. It does not fit into the strict framework of scientific thinking, its language, style and methods. In principle, non-scientific knowledge is available to everyone thinking person. It has specific features and functions in public life. The variety of forms and ways of understanding the world testifies to the inexhaustible wealth of the intellectual and spiritual culture of man, the perfection of his abilities and the huge potential of opportunities and prospects. With different ways of knowing the world can be perceived in different ways: not only with the eyes and mind of a scientist, but also with the heart of a believer, with the feelings and ear of a musician. It can be comprehended through the eyes of an artist and sculptor, and simply from the standpoint of an ordinary person.
In addition to scientific knowledge, there is also ordinary knowledge. Sometimes it is called "everyday", "everyday" thinking. It reflects the immediate, immediate conditions of people's existence - the natural environment, life, economic and other processes in which each person is included every day. The core of everyday knowledge is called common sense, including elementary correct information about the world. They are obtained by a person in the course of his daily life and serve the purposes of orientation in the world and its practical development. It is known, for example, that a person needs to know that water boils when heated to 100 degrees, that it is unsafe to touch a bare electrical conductor, etc.
This type of knowledge includes not only the simplest knowledge about the outside world, but also the beliefs and ideals of a person, folklore as a crystallization of the experience of knowing the world. Ordinary knowledge “grasps” the simplest connections of existence lying on the surface: if birds began to fly low above the ground, it means to be raining; if there are a lot of red mountain ash in the forest, then by a cold winter, etc. However, within the framework of everyday knowledge, people are also able to come to deep generalizations and conclusions that relate to attitudes towards other social groups, towards the political system, towards the state, etc.
Everyday knowledge, especially of modern man, also includes elements of scientific knowledge. However, it develops spontaneously, and therefore combines not only common sense, but also prejudices, beliefs, mysticism, etc.
mythological knowledge originated in ancient times as the consciousness of the species, when there was no individual man yet. It was like the dawn human being when a person was still living in a drowsy state and the sober day of self-consciousness had not yet arrived. A myth is basically an emotional-figurative perception of the world, a legend, a legend and a tradition. It has a place humanization forces of external nature, over which a person has no power yet and which are incomprehensible to him and even hostile. Primitive myth was a belief in the supernatural, in the gods as omnipotent and immortal, but still earthly beings. The world is an arena of activity and rivalry of the gods, and man is primarily a spectator of their fights and feasts.
From ancient mythology naive ideas have come down to us about how the world arose from the dark Chaos, how the Earth and Sky, Night and Darkness were born, how the first living beings appeared - gods and people. There are legends about the almighty Zeus and the titan Ocean, about the guardian underworld Tartarus, about the golden-haired Apollo, about the mighty Athena and other deities. There is also a legend about Prometheus, who stole fire from the gods and gave it to people, but was chained to a rock as a punishment and doomed to severe torment.
The mythological way of thinking turned out to be very tenacious and manifested itself in numerous social myths. An example of this can be the myth of communism, which expressed the ancient dream of mankind of a "golden age" as a society of equality and social justice. Elements of myth-making also take place in the consciousness of modern Russian society. This is due to acute socio-economic problems and the natural desire of people to find quick and less painful ways and means to solve these problems.
Ancient myths left not only the imaginative style of thinking and emotionally colored worldview. They provided rich food for art, for the subsequent development of religious thinking.
Religious knowledge is dogmatic thinking and includes a complex set of ideas about the world. Religion is based on belief in the supernatural - in God as the creator of the world. Religious thinking is based on supposedly unconditional truth. dogma. In Christianity, the main dogma is the provision about the presence of the divine in the earthly, about the creation of everything by God. In essence, religious knowledge is the knowledge of God. Within its framework, a religious picture was formed, which left a huge imprint on the worldview of people and the spiritual culture of mankind. From the standpoint of science, religion is, in the words of A. Whitehead, "flying after the unattainable", behind the ghostly. However, it would be completely unfair to consider religion as just the embodiment of some stupidity and ignorance. Religion is one of the most important forms of the spiritual experience of mankind, which embodies the search for people of another, more human world than this earthly world.
Religion and mythology as forms of spiritual development of the world are very close. They arose as an expression of human weakness and therefore contain fiction, fantasy. However, religion in the knowledge of the world and the explanation of its causes and foundations goes beyond limits this earthly world. She mentally creates supernatural world and explains from this position the development of nature, society and man. In religion there is rational thinking used to substantiate the idea of God's existence in the world. On the contrary, mythology is, according to Karl Marx, "unconsciously artistic" processing of the phenomena of the external world and social life.
Artistic knowledge is also one of the manifestations of unscientific comprehension of the world by man. It represents “thinking in images” (V. G. Belinsky), embodied in various forms of art. The artistic image is this case main means of understanding the world. The purpose of art is to express the aesthetic attitude of a person to the world, to discover harmony and beauty in it. Artistic knowledge in art is carried out with the help of such concepts as beautiful and ugly, comic and tragic, sublime, base, etc. Fiction is considered to be the most important form of art. According to L.M. Leonov, it is “the leading conscience of society”, the finest tool for comprehending spiritual world person. It is not surprising that a deep penetration into this world was achieved precisely in fiction - in the works of O. Balzac, F. M. Dostoevsky and other writers. Each type of art is armed with its own means of understanding the world: sound in music, a plastic image in sculpture, a visually perceived image in painting, drawing in graphics, etc.
Similar information.
Social science grade 10
Topic: Unscientific knowledge
You can't imagine it, but you can understand it.
L.D. Landau
Goals: to acquaint with the forms and methods of non-scientific knowledge;
develop the ability to compare, draw conclusions and generalizations;
develop an objective attitude towards subjective concepts.
Type of lesson: knowledge systematization lesson.
During the classes
I. Organizing time
(The teacher tells the topic and objectives of the lesson.)
We will consider the following questions:
Mythology.
Life experience.
Folk wisdom.
Parascience.
Art.
This material is not difficult, so messages will be heard today, and the task of the rest of the students is to give value judgment heard both in content and in technique.
II. political information.
Politics, economics, culture.
III. Checking homework
Terminological dictation. (, truth, deduction, induction, scientific
knowledge, empirical level, theoretical level.)
Cards for weak students. Menshaev I. Shaikhutdinov, Kayumova, Ramazanova.
Match terms and definitions.
| 1Empirical level | Pertaining to reality or its descriptions |
| 2 Deduction | Correspondence of thought to the subject. |
| 3Scientific knowledge | establishing the truth on the basis of reliable facts and premises |
| 4Theoretical level | the movement of knowledge from single statements to general provisions |
| 5True | D Thought experiment, hypothesis, theoretical modeling formulation of a set of scientific conclusions |
| 6Induction | E the movement of knowledge from the general to the particular. |
IV.
Learning new material
1. Mythology
(Student's post.)
Myth - a reflection of the views of ancient people on the world, their ideas about its structure and order in it. The myths contain the primary scientific concept of the Universe, albeit naive and fantastic, but they indicate some eternal categories of human consciousness: fate, love, friendship, self-sacrifice, heroism, dream, creativity. Archetypes and arch-plots of myths are still a theme for world art.
Features of mythological thinking:
indistinct separation of subject and object, object and sign, origin and essence, thing and word, being and its name, spatial and temporal relations, etc.;
replacement of the scientific explanation of the world with a story about the origin and creation (genetism and etiologism);
everything that happens in myth is a kind of model for reproduction, repetition (primary object and primary action). A myth usually combines two aspects: a story about the past and an explanation of the present or future.
The most common myths are ancient myths. But even in the huge mythological heritage of antiquity, myths stand out, without which the intellectual baggage of modern man is unthinkable.
The following groups of myths can be distinguished:
ICT. (1 slide)
myths about heroes (Prometheus, Hercules, Theseus);
myths about creators (Dedalus and Icarus, Orpheus, Arian, Pygmalion);
myths about fate and fate (Oedipus, Actaeon, Cephalus, Sisyphus);
myths about true friends (Orestes and Pylades, Achilles and Patroclus, Kaspor and Pollux);
myths about love (Narcissus, Orpheus and Eurydice, Apollo and Daphne, Cupid and Psyche).
Now let's analyze the myths. Read the myth, (work with the textbook p. 125.) Determine what type it belongs to (etiological, cosmogenic, calendar, eschatological, biographical).
Establish what information about the world this myth reflects; Can this information be called knowledge?
2. Life experience. Teacher's word.
Life experience combines practical and scientific-practical knowledge.
Practical knowledge is the assimilation of social experience not only with the help of language, but also on a non-verbal level: "Let me act, and I will understand." Actions, tools, tools are designed to obtain a practical result. The PE teacher first explains and shows how to throw a basketball into a basket. But only during the throws the student himself will master the throwing technique.
This kind of knowledge is transmitted during direct communication, is limited by the experience of an individual and satisfies a specific need.
Spiritual and practical knowledge -this is knowledge about how to treat the world, other people, to myself. For example, religious commandments. Always in class I am Christians, Muslims.
-(The teacher asks them to formulate 1-2 commandments.)
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In Buddhism, there is a principle: "Do not do to others what you consider evil."
In Taoism: "Consider your neighbor's gain as your gain, his loss as your loss."
In Hinduism: "Do not do to others what would hurt you."
In Islam: “One cannot be called a believer who does not wish for his sister or brother the same as he wishes for himself.”
In Judaism: "What is hateful to you, do not do to another."
In Christianity: "Do to others what you would like them to do to you."
home general idea above quotes - all people are equal in relation to each other and they are all worthy of human relations. This is a universal rule of moral judgment and is known as the "golden rule of morality".
3. Folk Wisdom Teacher's Word
(Folklore is studied in the lessons of literature, music, fine arts. Using specific programs for these academic disciplines in a particular educational institution, the teacher gives preliminary assignments to students.)
Posted by Rimma Sadriev.
Folk wisdom preserves and transmits from generation to generation important information about the world, nature, people. But this information is not the subject of a special analysis, reflection. People operate with them without thinking about their origin or reliability.
Often, on the same occasion, information contains the opposite information in meaning. For example, in Russian fairy tales, the poor man is always smarter and more resourceful than the rich man (the poor man has a lot of practical experience), the poor almost always appears as a tireless worker, but Russian sayings say something else: “Horses die from work”, “Work is not a wolf, it will not run away into the forest” .
What do you think is the reason for this phenomenon.
- (Answer. Peopleincludes different social groups, sometimes havingconflicting interests; folklore has no concretenoah author.)
4. parascience
(A discussion is organized on the basis of pre-prepared messages from supporters and opponents of parascience.)
Akhmadeeva Lilya, Zinnatov Ruslan.
teacher's word.
So, parascience is near-scientific knowledge.
The cognitive possibilities of man and society are limited, and the objects of knowledge are unlimited.
(The teacher draws a circle on the blackboard with a stylized human figure inside.)
Everything that a person knows is located inside the circle. It is clear that there is much more unknown to man than known.
The complexities and difficulties of scientific knowledge give rise as phenomena waiting scientific explanations and confirmations (Fermat's theorem), and speculations that are far from the truth or striving for it (Thai pills as a universal remedy for obesity and normalization of metabolism).
5. Art
Art uses an artistic image for cognition and expresses an aesthetic attitude to reality.
Hesiod claimed that the Muses tell lies that look like the truth. The fact is that two principles are combined in the artistic image: objective-cognitive and subjective-creative. An artistic image is a reflection of reality through the subjective perception of it by the artist himself and by those who perceive the work of art.
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-(The teacher offers to consider an illustration of the painting by V.A. Serov “Girl with Peaches”. The picture was painted in 1887 and is a portrait of Verochka Mamontova. Next, the teacher asks to identify the main figure of the picture.
Students usually answer that this is a girl, judging by the name of the picture).
But the art historian is convinced that this is sunlight. Bright light floods the room through large windows, sun glare plays on light walls, shimmers on a white tablecloth, painting it with multi-colored shades, the same light is reflected on the face and clothes of the heroine. The play of light and shadow makes the picture attractive, because it is this game that a person constantly observes in reality.
What is the symbol of the bygone XX century for each of you?
V. Consolidation of the studied material
ICT. (4 slide)
Write an essay on one of the following topics:
On the example of one of the myths, determine which events in a person's life were considered especially significant in Ancient Greece or in Ancient Rome(optional).
The French poet A. Musset said that experience is the name that most people give to stupid things that have been done or experienced troubles. Is he right?
Remember and write down a few proverbs and sayings. Give them a value judgment.
Make an analysis of the Russian folk tale (at the choice of students) as a form of knowledge and the formation of a way of thinking.
(The teacher collects essays for revision.)
VIHomework
11, questions and tasks p.124-126
