Unscientific knowledge and its forms. Forms characteristic of non-scientific knowledge
In addition to feelings and reason, recognized by science as the main human abilities that allow one to obtain new knowledge, there are also unscientific ways of knowing:
- intuition;
- wit;
- faith;
- mystical illumination.
Intuition- the ability to acquire new knowledge “on a whim”, “in insight”. It is usually associated with the unconscious.
This means that the process of solving an important problem may take place on a non-conscious level. For example, as in the case of Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev (1834-1907), he saw in a dream the principle of constructing the Periodic Table of Elements. It is important to note that, however, with all this, the solution of the problem in intuitive knowledge does not come by itself, but on the basis of past experience and in the process of intense reflection on the problem. It is quite understandable that a person who does not seriously deal with a problem will never solve it by “insight”. Therefore, intuition is on the border of scientific and non-scientific forms of knowledge.
Wit - creative ability to notice the points of contact of heterogeneous phenomena and combine them in a single, radically new solution. It is important to know that most of the theories (as well as scientific inventions) are based precisely on subtle and ingenious solutions.
It should be noted that wit according to these mechanisms belongs to the ways of artistic knowledge of the world.
Faith will be in religion a way of knowing the "true world" and own soul. Real faith will create a supernatural bond between man and truth. Moreover, the "creeds" themselves in any religion are recognized as indisputable truths, and belief in them makes sensory and rational verification unnecessary. “I believe, ɥᴛᴏ to know,” said the medieval scholastic Anselm of Cangerbury (1033-1109)
mystical insight in mystical teachings is regarded as a path to true knowledge, a breakthrough from the "prison" of the reality surrounding a person into a supernatural, true being. In mystical teachings, there are numerous spiritual practices (meditations, mysteries), which in the end should provide a person with a new level of knowledge.
Types of non-scientific knowledge
Science is skeptical about non-scientific forms of cognition, however, some researchers believe that knowledge should not be limited only to feelings and reason.
In addition to methods, one can also kinds not scientific knowledge .
Ordinary practical knowledge based on common sense, worldly intelligence and life experience and is extremely important for correct orientation in repetitive situations of everyday life, for physical work. I. Kant called the cognitive ability that provides such activity, reason.
mythological knowledge tries to explain the world in fantastic and emotional images. In the early stages of development, mankind did not yet have enough experience to understand the true causes of many phenomena, therefore they were explained with the help of myths and legends, without taking into account cause-and-effect relationships. For all its fantasticness, the myth performed important functions: within the framework of its capabilities, it interpreted the questions of the origin of the world and man and explained natural phenomena, thereby satisfying the human desire for knowledge, provided certain models for activity, defining the rules of behavior, passing on experience and traditional values from generation per generation.
religious knowledge is thinking on the basis of dogmas recognized as irrefutable. Reality is viewed through the prism of "creeds", the main of which will be the requirement to believe in the supernatural. As a rule, religion is focused on spiritual self-knowledge, occupying a niche in which both ordinary and scientific knowledge are powerless. Religion, being a form of obtaining and expanding spiritual experience, has had a significant impact on the development of mankind.
Artistic knowledge is based not on scientific concepts, but on integral artistic images and allows you to feel and sensually express - in literature, music, painting, sculpture - the subtle shades of spiritual movements, the individuality of a person, feelings and emotions, the uniqueness of every moment of a person’s life and the nature surrounding him. The artistic image, as it were, complements the scientific concept. If science tries to show the objective side of the world, then art (along with religion) is its personally colored component.
philosophical knowledge, considering the world as an integrity, it is primarily a synthesis of scientific and artistic types of knowledge. Philosophy thinks not in terms and images, but in "image-notions" or concepts.
From one point of view, these concepts are close to scientific concepts, since they are expressed in terms, and on the other hand, to artistic images, since these concepts are not as strict and unambiguous as in science; rather, they are symbolic. Philosophy can also use elements of religious knowledge ( religious philosophy), although in itself it does not require a person to believe in the supernatural.
Unlike these types, scientific knowledge involves an explanation, the search for patterns in each area of its research, requires strict evidence, a clear and objective description of the facts in the form of a coherent and consistent system. With ϶ᴛᴏm, science is not completely opposed to everyday practical knowledge, accepting some elements of experience, and worldly experience itself in modern times takes into account many of the data of science.
Wherein scientific knowledge not immune to errors. History has proven the illegitimacy of many hypotheses that science previously operated on (about the world ether, phlogiston, etc.). At the same time, science does not pretend to absolute knowledge. Her knowledge always contains some part of delusion, which is reduced with the development of science. Science is about finding truth, not about owning it.
It is in the ϶ᴛᴏth direction of science that the main criterion that distinguishes it from numerous fakes is laid down: any claim to the possession of a single and absolute truth will be unscientific.
See also: Pseudoscience
And the mind, recognized by science as the main ones, allowing you to get new knowledge, distinguish and unscientific ways:
- intuition;
- wit;
- faith;
- mystical illumination.
Intuition- the ability to acquire new knowledge “on a whim”, “in insight”. It is usually associated with the unconscious.
This means that the process of solving an important problem may take place on a non-conscious level. For example, as in the case of Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev (1834-1907), who in a dream saw the principle of constructing the Periodic Table of Elements. Nevertheless, the solution to the problem in intuitive knowledge does not come by itself, but on the basis of past experience and in the process of intense reflection on the problem. Obviously, a person who does not seriously deal with a problem will never solve it by "insight". Therefore, intuition is on the border and non-scientific forms of knowledge.
Wit - creative ability to notice the points of contact of heterogeneous phenomena and combine them in a single, radically new solution. Most theories (as well as scientific inventions) are based precisely on subtle and ingenious solutions. Wit in its mechanisms belongs to the ways of artistic knowledge of the world.
Social science grade 10
Topic: Unscientific knowledge
You can't imagine it, but you can understand it.
L.D. Landau
Goals: to acquaint with the forms and methods of non-scientific knowledge;
develop the ability to compare, draw conclusions and generalizations;
develop an objective attitude towards subjective concepts.
Type of lesson: knowledge systematization lesson.
During the classes
I. Organizing time
(The teacher tells the topic and objectives of the lesson.)
We will consider the following questions:
Mythology.
Life experience.
Folk wisdom.
Parascience.
Art.
This material is not difficult, so messages will be heard today, and the task of the rest of the students is to give value judgment heard both in content and in technique.
II. political information.
Politics, economics, culture.
III. Checking homework
Terminological dictation. (, truth, deduction, induction, scientific
knowledge, empirical level, theoretical level.)
Cards for weak students. Menshaev I. Shaikhutdinov, Kayumova, Ramazanova.
Match terms and definitions.
| 1Empirical level | Pertaining to reality or its descriptions |
| 2 Deduction | Correspondence of thought to the subject. |
| 3Scientific knowledge | establishing the truth on the basis of reliable facts and premises |
| 4Theoretical level | the movement of knowledge from single statements to general provisions |
| 5True | D Thought experiment, hypothesis, theoretical modeling formulation of a set of scientific conclusions |
| 6Induction | E the movement of knowledge from the general to the particular. |
IV.
Learning new material
1. Mythology
(Student's post.)
Myth - a reflection of the views of ancient people on the world, their ideas about its structure and order in it. The myths contain the primary scientific concept of the Universe, albeit naive and fantastic, but they indicate some eternal categories of human consciousness: fate, love, friendship, self-sacrifice, heroism, dream, creativity. Archetypes and arch-plots of myths are still a theme for world art.
Features of mythological thinking:
indistinct separation of subject and object, object and sign, origin and essence, thing and word, being and its name, spatial and temporal relations, etc.;
replacement of the scientific explanation of the world with a story about the origin and creation (genetism and etiologism);
everything that happens in myth is a kind of model for reproduction, repetition (primary object and primary action). A myth usually combines two aspects: a story about the past and an explanation of the present or future.
The most common myths are ancient myths. But even in the huge mythological heritage of antiquity, myths stand out, without which the intellectual baggage of modern man is unthinkable.
The following groups of myths can be distinguished:
ICT. (1 slide)
myths about heroes (Prometheus, Hercules, Theseus);
myths about creators (Dedalus and Icarus, Orpheus, Arian, Pygmalion);
myths about fate and fate (Oedipus, Actaeon, Cephalus, Sisyphus);
myths about true friends (Orestes and Pylades, Achilles and Patroclus, Kaspor and Pollux);
myths about love (Narcissus, Orpheus and Eurydice, Apollo and Daphne, Cupid and Psyche).
Now let's analyze the myths. Read the myth, (work with the textbook p. 125.) Determine what type it belongs to (etiological, cosmogenic, calendar, eschatological, biographical).
Establish what information about the world this myth reflects; Can this information be called knowledge?
2. Life experience. Teacher's word.
Life experience combines practical and scientific-practical knowledge.
Practical knowledge is the assimilation of social experience not only with the help of language, but also on a non-verbal level: "Let me act, and I will understand." Actions, tools, tools are designed to obtain a practical result. The PE teacher first explains and shows how to throw a basketball into a basket. But only during the throws the student himself will master the throwing technique.
This kind of knowledge is transmitted during direct communication, is limited by the experience of an individual and satisfies a specific need.
Spiritual and practical knowledge -this is knowledge about how to treat the world, other people, to myself. For example, religious commandments. Always in class I am Christians, Muslims.
-(The teacher asks them to formulate 1-2 commandments.)
ICT (2 slide)
In Buddhism, there is a principle: "Do not do to others what you consider evil."
In Taoism: "Consider your neighbor's gain as your gain, his loss as your loss."
In Hinduism: "Do not do to others what would hurt you."
In Islam: “One cannot be called a believer who does not wish for his sister or brother the same as he wishes for himself.”
In Judaism: "What is hateful to you, do not do to another."
In Christianity: "Do to others what you would like them to do to you."
home general idea above quotes - all people are equal in relation to each other and they are all worthy of human relations. This is a universal rule of moral judgment and is known as the "golden rule of morality".
3. Folk Wisdom Teacher's Word
(Folklore is studied in the lessons of literature, music, fine arts. Using specific programs for these academic disciplines in a particular educational institution, the teacher gives preliminary assignments to students.)
Posted by Rimma Sadriev.
Folk wisdom preserves and transmits from generation to generation important information about the world, nature, people. But this information is not the subject of a special analysis, reflection. People operate with them without thinking about their origin or reliability.
Often, on the same occasion, information contains the opposite information in meaning. For example, in Russian fairy tales, the poor man is always smarter and more resourceful than the rich man (the poor man has a lot of practical experience), the poor almost always appears as a tireless worker, but Russian sayings say something else: “Horses die from work”, “Work is not a wolf, it will not run away into the forest” .
What do you think is the reason for this phenomenon.
- (Answer. Peopleincludes different social groups, sometimes havingconflicting interests; folklore has no concretenoah author.)
4. parascience
(A discussion is organized on the basis of pre-prepared messages from supporters and opponents of parascience.)
Akhmadeeva Lilya, Zinnatov Ruslan.
teacher's word.
So, parascience is near-scientific knowledge.
The cognitive possibilities of man and society are limited, and the objects of knowledge are unlimited.
(The teacher draws a circle on the blackboard with a stylized human figure inside.)
Everything that a person knows is located inside the circle. It is clear that there is much more unknown to man than known.
The complexities and difficulties of scientific knowledge give rise to both phenomena that await scientific explanations and confirmations (Fermat's theorem), and speculations that are far from the truth or striving for it (Thai pills as a universal remedy for obesity and normalization of metabolism).
5. Art
Art uses an artistic image for cognition and expresses an aesthetic attitude to reality.
Hesiod claimed that the Muses tell lies that look like the truth. The fact is that two principles are combined in the artistic image: objective-cognitive and subjective-creative. An artistic image is a reflection of reality through the subjective perception of it by the artist himself and by those who perceive the work of art.
ICT (3 slide_)
-(The teacher offers to consider an illustration of the painting by V.A. Serov “Girl with Peaches”. The picture was painted in 1887 and is a portrait of Verochka Mamontova. Next, the teacher asks to identify the main figure of the picture.
Students usually answer that this is a girl, judging by the name of the picture).
But the art historian is convinced that this is sunlight. Bright light floods the room through large windows, sun glare plays on light walls, shimmers on a white tablecloth, painting it with multi-colored shades, the same light is reflected on the face and clothes of the heroine. The play of light and shadow makes the picture attractive, because it is this game that a person constantly observes in reality.
What is the symbol of the bygone XX century for each of you?
V. Consolidation of the studied material
ICT. (4 slide)
Write an essay on one of the following topics:
On the example of one of the myths, determine which events in a person's life were considered especially significant in Ancient Greece or in Ancient Rome(optional).
The French poet A. Musset said that experience is the name that most people give to stupid things that have been done or experienced troubles. Is he right?
Remember and write down a few proverbs and sayings. Give them a value judgment.
Make an analysis of the Russian folk tale (at the choice of students) as a form of knowledge and the formation of a way of thinking.
(The teacher collects essays for revision.)
VIHomework
11, questions and tasks p.124-126
Along with scientific knowledge, there are also various types of non-scientific knowledge. It does not fit into the strict framework of scientific thinking, its language, style and methods. In principle, non-scientific knowledge is available to everyone thinking person. It has specific features and functions in public life. The variety of forms and ways of understanding the world testifies to the inexhaustible wealth of the intellectual and spiritual culture of man, the perfection of his abilities and the huge potential of opportunities and prospects. With different ways of knowing the world can be perceived in different ways: not only with the eyes and mind of a scientist, but also with the heart of a believer, with the feelings and ear of a musician. It can be comprehended through the eyes of an artist and sculptor, and simply from the standpoint of an ordinary person.
In addition to scientific knowledge, there is also ordinary knowledge. Sometimes it is called "everyday", "everyday" thinking. It reflects the immediate, immediate conditions of people's existence - the natural environment, life, economic and other processes in which each person is included every day. The core of everyday knowledge is called common sense, including elementary correct information about the world. They are obtained by man in the course of his Everyday life and serve the purposes of orientation in the world and its practical development. It is known, for example, that a person needs to know that water boils when heated to 100 degrees, that it is unsafe to touch a bare electrical conductor, etc.
This type of knowledge includes not only the simplest knowledge about the outside world, but also the beliefs and ideals of a person, folklore as a crystallization of the experience of knowing the world. Ordinary knowledge “grasps” the simplest connections of existence lying on the surface: if birds began to fly low above the ground, it means to be raining; if there are a lot of red mountain ash in the forest, then by a cold winter, etc. However, within the framework of everyday knowledge, people are also able to come to deep generalizations and conclusions that relate to attitudes towards other social groups, towards the political system, towards the state, etc.
Everyday knowledge, especially of modern man, also includes elements of scientific knowledge. However, it develops spontaneously, and therefore combines not only common sense, but also prejudices, beliefs, mysticism, etc.
mythological knowledge originated in ancient times as the consciousness of the species, when there was no individual man yet. It was like the dawn human being when a person was still living in a drowsy state and the sober day of self-consciousness had not yet arrived. A myth is basically an emotional-figurative perception of the world, a legend, a legend and a tradition. It has a place humanization forces of external nature, over which a person has no power yet and which are incomprehensible to him and even hostile. Primitive myth was a belief in the supernatural, in the gods as omnipotent and immortal, but still earthly beings. The world is an arena of activity and rivalry of the gods, and man is primarily a spectator of their fights and feasts.
From ancient mythology naive ideas have come down to us about how the world arose from the dark Chaos, how the Earth and Sky, Night and Darkness were born, how the first living beings appeared - gods and people. There are legends about the almighty Zeus and the titan Ocean, about the guardian underworld Tartarus, about the golden-haired Apollo, about the mighty Athena and other deities. There is also a legend about Prometheus, who stole fire from the gods and gave it to people, but was chained to a rock as a punishment and doomed to severe torment.
The mythological way of thinking turned out to be very tenacious and manifested itself in numerous social myths. An example of this can be the myth of communism, which expressed the ancient dream of mankind of a "golden age" as a society of equality and social justice. Elements of myth-making also take place in the consciousness of modern Russian society. This is due to acute socio-economic problems and the natural desire of people to find quick and less painful ways and means to solve these problems.
Ancient myths left not only the imaginative style of thinking and emotionally colored worldview. They provided rich food for art, for the subsequent development of religious thinking.
Religious knowledge is dogmatic thinking and includes a complex set of ideas about the world. Religion is based on belief in the supernatural - in God as the creator of the world. Religious thinking is based on supposedly unconditional truth. dogma. In Christianity, the main dogma is the provision about the presence of the divine in the earthly, about the creation of everything by God. In essence, religious knowledge is the knowledge of God. Within its framework, a religious picture was formed, which left a huge imprint on the worldview of people and the spiritual culture of mankind. From the standpoint of science, religion is, in the words of A. Whitehead, "flying after the unattainable", behind the ghostly. However, it would be completely unfair to consider religion as just the embodiment of some stupidity and ignorance. Religion is one of the most important forms of the spiritual experience of mankind, which embodies the search for people of another, more human world than this earthly world.
Religion and mythology as forms of spiritual development of the world are very close. They arose as an expression of human weakness and therefore contain fiction, fantasy. However, religion in the knowledge of the world and the explanation of its causes and foundations goes beyond limits this earthly world. She mentally creates supernatural world and explains from this position the development of nature, society and man. In religion there is rational thinking used to substantiate the idea of God's existence in the world. On the contrary, mythology is, according to Karl Marx, "unconsciously artistic" processing of the phenomena of the external world and social life.
Artistic knowledge is also one of the manifestations of unscientific comprehension of the world by man. It represents “thinking in images” (V. G. Belinsky), embodied in various forms of art. The artistic image is this case main means of understanding the world. The purpose of art is to express the aesthetic attitude of a person to the world, to discover harmony and beauty in it. Artistic knowledge in art is carried out with the help of such concepts as beautiful and ugly, comic and tragic, sublime, base, etc. Fiction is considered to be the most important form of art. According to L.M. Leonov, it is “the leading conscience of society”, the finest tool for comprehending spiritual world person. It is not surprising that a deep penetration into this world was achieved precisely in fiction - in the works of O. Balzac, F. M. Dostoevsky and other writers. Each type of art is armed with its own means of understanding the world: sound in music, a plastic image in sculpture, a visually perceived image in painting, drawing in graphics, etc.
Similar information.
Forms of knowledge are very diverse and each knowledge is associated with knowledge. Cognition is the process of acquiring knowledge.
It is necessary to distinguish between scientific and non-scientific knowledge.
1. Scientific knowledge (science arises on its basis). In a general sense, scientific knowledge is defined as the process of obtaining objective knowledge about reality. Objective - independent of consciousness. The ultimate goal of scientific knowledge is the achievement of truth. The immediate goal of scientific knowledge is to describe, explain and predict the phenomena and processes of reality on the basis of the laws it discovers. scientific explanation means an indication (opening) of the reasons. The purpose of knowledge also consists in the discovery of laws. Law is a set of necessary, essential, universal and recurring connections between phenomena and processes of reality. Laws are of two types: dynamic and statistical.
Dynamic laws are those whose conclusions are unambiguous. Science relies primarily on dynamic laws (Newtonian - until the end of the 19th century).
Statistical regularities are characterized by a probabilistic character (since the end of the 19th century - since the invasion of science into the microworld). Synergetics proceeds from the fact that all phenomena are characterized by statistical regularities.
2. Unscientific knowledge, unlike scientific knowledge, is not based on objective premises. Like scientific, non-scientific knowledge can be theoretical, but such knowledge, as a rule, is based on deliberately false assumptions. The following forms of non-scientific knowledge can be distinguished:
one). Historical:
a) mythology (a myth always contains a judgment that is considered true, but in fact it is not true); the myth is always anthropogenic in nature and is accepted as true, rituals are associated with vital provisions, people believe in them, although they are obviously false;
b) a religious form of knowledge, the main element of which is belief in the supernatural;
c) a philosophical form of knowledge, which consists in the study of the most general principles of being, thinking;
d) artistic and figurative (associated with the aesthetic);
e) game cognition: a game, as a necessary form of cognition, fundamental in the development of culture, games require rules (“business games”);
f) everyday practical knowledge (common sense, worldly experience): based on individual experience.
2). Irrational (non-rational) cognition:
b) mysticism;
c) witchcraft;
d) esoteric knowledge;
e) experience, sensations;
e) folk science(psychics, healers, healers).
Extra-scientific knowledge is characterized by:
1) insufficient validity;
2) frequent unreliability;
3) irrationalism.
Extreme expressions of extra-scientific knowledge: anti-science - a hostile attitude towards science (the era of the Middle Ages); pseudoscience (a concept containing a contradiction within itself, a conscious opposition to science); pseudoscience (quasi-science) – imaginary science (astrology).
Extra-scientific knowledge also includes parascience (near-science) - knowledge that cannot be explained from the point of view of modern science, but makes you think (telekinesis, etc.), for example, moving objects at a distance (telekinesis).
The existence of extra-scientific knowledge is due to the versatility of a person, his interests (love, religion), a person cannot be driven into a strict scientific framework, scientific knowledge is not enough for a normal person. Science is not omnipotent, extra-scientific knowledge appears earlier than scientific knowledge, but the main criterion of truth is scientific knowledge.
Philosophy is a doctrine (not science), it is a systematized doctrine of the most general principles of being. Certain concepts of philosophy are close to scientific ones, since they tend to rely on science (Marxism), but this does not mean that the rest philosophical concepts less valuable. Non-scientific philosophy can play a colossal role (religious philosophy). The philosophy of science is not a science, because it has its own system of categories, its own language, etc., but it is a social science. Even natural science does not contain unambiguous truths (Newton's concept in the development of Einstein).
True- epistemological characteristic of thinking in its relation to its subject. A thought is called true (or truth) if it corresponds to the subject.
The most famous definition of truth was given by Aristotle and formulated by Isaac the Israelite; from Avicenna it was adopted by Thomas Aquinas throughout scholastic philosophy. This definition says that truth is conformitas seu adaequatio intentionalis intellectus cum re (the intellect's intentional agreement with or correspondence with the real thing).
AT general philosophy, socio-humanitarian and natural, technical sciences, by truth they mean the compliance of the provisions with a certain criterion of verifiability: theoretical, empirical.
In philosophy, the concept of truth coincides with a set of basic concepts that make it possible to distinguish between reliable and unreliable knowledge according to the degree of its fundamental ability to be consistent with reality, according to its logical inconsistency / consistency, according to the degree of its compliance with a priori principles.
Lenin characterized truth as the supra-class and supra-historical content of our ideas. Marxism does not deny the existence of eternal or absolute truth as the dynamic integrity of being in its entirety, and in its epistemology considers the process of comprehending absolute truth in the context of the dialectical relationship between absolute and relative truth. V.I. Lenin in his work Materialism and empirio-criticism argued that "human thinking by its nature is able to give and gives us absolute truth, which is made up of the sum of relative truths. Each step in the development of science adds new grains to this sum of absolute truth, but the limits of the truth of each scientific statement are relative, being either expanded or narrowed by the further growth of knowledge "(PSS, T., 18, p. 137).
Scientific criteria -- a set of features that specify scientific knowledge; a set of requirements that science must satisfy.
The criteria statements below are abstracted from professional-industry specificity and socio-cultural and socio-historical variability.
1. Truth. It is impossible to equate science and truth. Ilyin singled out three elements in science: cutting edge science, designed to play alternatives (creative search, hypotheses); the solid core of science is an unproblematic layer of knowledge that acts as a foundation; the history of science is knowledge pushed out of the boundaries of science (morally obsolete), perhaps not completely 14 . Only the core is formed from true knowledge, however, the core is also undergoing changes (scientific revolutions). There is no absolute true knowledge in science.
2. problematic: science is an attempt to solve problem situations. Historian Collingwood: all science begins with the consciousness of ignorance.
3. Validity. It is impossible to absolutize validity: not every statement must be proved; science relies on unscientific premises that are accepted without proof. Over time, the evidence of these premises may change; then there is a revision of the premises (an example is the emergence of quantum mechanics).
4. Intersubjective verifiability. Scientific knowledge is considered justified if there is a fundamental possibility of its verification by the whole community.
5. Consistency: scientific knowledge must be logically organized.
6. progressivism: scientific knowledge must improve itself. This requirement does not apply to art - several trends can exist simultaneously (for example, realism and surrealism).
The considered criteria are ideal norms; they do not describe scientific knowledge, but prescribe. Simultaneous presence of all these criteria is impossible, it is only an aspiration. The given system of criteria requires clarification in application to the branch of science (for example, in physics leading role intersubjective verifiability plays, in mathematics it is truth, in history it is systemicity).
