Thumb. Phalanges of fingers

For many palmists, reading the thumb is almost as important as all the other fingers combined. It's not surprising if you think that the free-standing thumb is responsible for many of humanity's evolutionary advantages over other mammals. Some. Indian palmists are notorious for limiting their reading to just one thumb and not noticing the rest of the hand!

The thumb does not bear the name of a god (although it is sometimes associated with the sign of Aries, but it is a key indicator of the level of vitality or vitality. The longer the thumb, the more vital and strong the personality, especially if it is complemented by a strong index finger.

When is the thumb considered long? The normal length of the thumb is when its corolla reaches the base of the finger of Jupiter (index, or first). Remember to take into account the position of the thumb when determining the length.
Long (a). A good leader, sane, balanced and with good judgment. It can be very easy for people with long thumbs to find a common language with themselves.
Very long. The longer the thumb, the more definite and more outspoken person. Owners of very long thumbs(those that reach the second phalanx of the finger of Jupiter) can be despotic tyrants and striving to do everything their own way at any cost.
Short. A person with a short thumb is impressionable and indecisive, he is one of those whose heart rules the head. This personality may be weak and hesitant, inclined to follow the crowd. These people lack control over their emotions and are tactless towards others.
Big. Capable and full of energy.
Short and thick. Stubborn.
Small and weak. Lack of energy and willpower.
Direct (b). Closed, loyal, reliable, prudent and stubborn.
Straight joints. Full vitality.
Knotty joints (c). Energy comes from strange flashes.
Square tip. Realistic nature.
Pointed tip (d). Impulsive and impractical.

The place where the thumb joins the palm says a lot. To determine where the base of the thumb is, divide the palm, or print, into quadrants. Draw a line from the middle of the base of the middle finger (a) to the middle of the base of the palm (c). These points are clearly visible. If you are looking at a living palm, then the line will be imaginary; if you have a palm print, mark a line on a piece of lined paper with the print on top. The horizontal line dividing the palm into quadrants should intersect the vertical line in the middle (c). To determine this middle, it is best to use a ruler. It is very important to draw the horizontal quadrant line correctly, as it determines the placement of the finger: low, high or normal.

Normal attachment of the thumb (a). The normally placed thumb joins the palm exactly at the point of intersection between the horizontal line of the quadrant and the inner edge of the palm. This position enhances the positive attributes of the thumb.
High attachment of the thumb (b). A person with a high thumb should be receptive, perhaps dishonest and mediocre; the fact is that the thumb often lies relatively close to the palm, so that the palm enhances these features. These people can be problem solvers, they are capable of flashes of creative thinking in order to come up with unexpected solutions.
Low attachment of the thumb (c). People with a low attached thumb are bold, courageous, flexible and gifted more practically than intellectually. This arrangement indicates physical vitality, adaptability and nobility.

THUMB ANGLE

The angle at which a person naturally holds his thumb relative to his palm is related to his mood, attitude towards others, and level of willpower.

AT in general terms, the wider the angle between the finger of Jupiter (first, or index) and the thumb, the more adventurous a person is and is open to others. Most people hold their thumb at an angle of 45° to 90° relative to the palm, which indicates a balanced personality. If the angle is less than 45°, then the person is likely to be selfish, secretive, and diligently restrain his willpower.
Lies close to the palm (a). Reflecting the hidden nature of such a hand, people who have it are harsh and inflexible, closed. Here it is more likely that the person is not entirely honest.
Inclined to the fingers (b). This position of the hand indicates a person who is afraid of relationships with other people; they keep their affairs secret and rarely confide their problems. Such people are usually unhappy and self-destructive, they may even suffer from neuroses.
Forms a right angle with the palm (c). This indicates a keen sense of justice. Such people are gentle, trusting, friendly and open-minded.
Forms an angle greater than a right angle (r). Too soft-hearted and potentially gullible, as it overly relies on others.

Many beginners confuse the angle of the thumb with its flexibility. Actually, speaking about the flexibility of the thumb, they judge by how the tip of the joint behaves. The flexible thumb bends back slightly on its own, while the inflexible thumb remains almost completely straight. However, the bend will always be only soft, even on a very flexible thumb, because the elasticity of its joint is limited.

Flexible (a). Flexible nature, good-natured, noble, tolerant; flexible thumb happens to people who strive for extravagance. These people do not like to quarrel with others or play the devil's advocate.
Inflexible (b). A sign of determination and firmness, the inflexible thumb is often found in people with leadership qualities. Such a thumb may be a sign of hardness of nature, however, if it is too straight and hard, then this indicates a closed mind and that its owner expresses little sympathy for the opinions of other people.

As you can see, the thumb has only two phalanges. In palmistry, each of them has its own traditional associations - the upper phalanx is identified with will, and the middle one with logic. In reality, however, like the rest of the fingers, the thumb has three phalanges, but the third is a soft, fleshy pad on the palm. It is traditionally identified with other similar bumps on the arm, known as bumps. Therefore, the third phalanx of the thumb is the Mount of Venus, which is identified with the most important aspects of the human character: his health, energy, sexual behavior and that general> that gives him zest in life. In general, the significance of the third phalanx in palmistry reflects the fact that the joints associated with this phalanx, from which the large fawn begins, stand apart.

The presence of a drop of water (a small bulge that stands out when looking at the phalanx in profile; see p. 64) is a bump on the top of the phalanx, which literally expresses a sense of innate self-esteem. While such drops are associated with the tactile abilities possessed by any of the fingers, a drop of water on the thumb expresses a special quality. It is often found on the hands of art connoisseurs and people who are interested in art.
The first and second phalanges are of equal length (a). A balanced personality, in which strong will and prudence are of equal importance. These people have acumen and are able to carry out their plans in a clear and reasonable way.
The first and second phalanges are of the same width (b). People who are blunt and straight have similar thumbs; they show their logical abilities well and go their own way.
The first phalanx is broad and firm. Indicates an abundance of vitality and correctly directed energy - this is the leader's finger. It is especially good if it is combined with (narrowing) on ​​the second phalanx, as these people are able to combine their leadership skills with tact and diplomacy.
The first phalanx is longer than the second. The energy of this person is not controlled by the power of his mind; he needs to define the situation more carefully, listening to the opinions of others before taking decisive action and trying to do things his own way.
Strongly pointed first phalanx. The narrowing at the top of the phalanx indicates a lack of vitality and energy.
The first phalanx is in the form of a club (c). Furious, full of uncontrollable energy. Traditionally, such fingers were dubbed. In fact, people with such fingers only tend to be violent and violent. The second phalanx is broad and firm. This is the thumb of a person who is logical, reasonable and thinks before acting.
The second phalanx is longer than the first. A reserved person feels limited.
Narrowed second phalanx (d). Quick-thinking, tactful, impulsive, can be evasive.

Divination by the thumb

The first thing a palmist pays attention to is the thumb, since the thumb determines the individuality of a person, so to speak, his strengths or weaknesses. The first phalanx (nail) of the thumb expresses will, ingenuity, initiative. The second phalanx is a sign of logic, clear understanding, reason. The third phalanx - a tubercle at the base of the thumb - illuminates a greater or lesser inclination towards love.
Thus, the thumb gives a general idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe character of a person, which is only slightly modified with the addition of data about other fingers.

The thumb is, as it were, the leader of the other fingers, which must obey it, since it contains the three main engines of life - will, reason and love. There is also such an expression: "To collect the will into a fist." And it appeared not by chance, because it is the thumb that is on top of the others when the hand is gathered into a fist. Therefore, looking at the thumb, it is already possible to draw a conclusion about the personality of a person.

Consider, for starters, first phalanx thumb. Those whose first phalanx is long and highly developed have a strong will, great self-confidence and an extreme desire to improve themselves in anything. If the 1st phalanx is too long, then a person has a desire for domination, expressed in tyranny. If this phalanx is of medium size, then the person maintains a balance between the desire for dominance and resistance to this. If the 1st phalanx of the thumb is short, then this will express a lack of will and constancy - this is expressed in the fact that a person can constantly doubt something, not trust his own opinion, indulge other people. If the first phalanx is too short, then this will mean that the person is completely incapable of any resistance, cowardly, his mood can quickly change.

Second phalanx determines the logic and reason of a person, how true he is to his views. If the 2nd phalanx is long and strong, then logic and reason will be the strong qualities of a person, if it is short, they will be weak. A very developed 2nd phalanx of the thumb indicates that a person resides more in the world of ideas, thoughts than in the realm of feelings, he acts in accordance with what reason, conviction prescribes to him, but not under the influence of a momentary feeling, mood.

Third phalanx (metacarpal bone) expresses the power of sensuality. If the 3rd phalanx is too thick and long, then the person submits to the dominance of unbridled passion, if it is in harmony with the rest of the hand, the person will fall in love, but in moderation. If the 3rd phalanx is weak, flat and gently expressed, then the person has a little pronounced inclination to sensual pleasures.

In order to determine how developed the thumb is, first place the thumb (in a relaxed state) along the index finger. If the thumb reaches the middle of the third phalanx of the index finger, then the thumb is well developed; if it is higher, the thumb is too developed; if it is lower, the thumb is poorly developed.

A person who has a strong will, which is expressed in the first phalanx of the thumb, and does not have logic, which is expressed in the shortness of the 2nd phalanx, by all means, will dominate. He will constantly desire this, not in accordance with his logic and reason. His life will be a struggle in which he will incessantly destroy himself and other people.

If he combines both will and logic, he will have to achieve his goal.

If the 1st and 2nd phalanges are the same length and the thumb is in harmony with the length of the other fingers, then this means that the person has a very strong will, which is based on logic. It may even lead to lust for power, but not to tyranny.

The average size of the thumb means that the person himself does not strive for power, but does not allow himself to be pressured, resists any violence.

If the 2nd phalanx of the thumb is longer than the 1st phalanx, then the person's strength will be reason and logic, but will will be weak. Such a person will be a good adviser to others, but he himself will not take advantage of anything.

If a person has the 3rd phalanx of the thumb too strongly developed, then the meaning of his life can be pleasure. But if at the same time the 1st phalanx is well developed, then a person will be able to control his passion, which will turn into tenderness. Such a person will love people, relatives, friends. He can also be engaged in charity, missionary work, spiritual service.

Varieties of the thumb

The club-shaped thumb, spherical in shape, speaks of the stubbornness of a person. Such people are often irritated, they may experience sudden outbursts of rage, they are prone to despotism, violent actions.

If the thumb is flexible and its first phalanx can bend outward (Fig. a), then this indicates that the person is tolerant of the actions of other people, he has flexibility, diplomatic abilities, and can find a common language with everyone.

If the thumb is strongly bent outward (Fig. b), then this means that a person can always justify himself, even betrayal and betrayal on his part, his conscience rarely torments him, and even if he torments, then not for long.

When the thumb is bent inward (inflexible), this means that a person is very often in a state of nervousness, and he is also stingy.

The “waist” of the thumb indicates that a person is tactful, always restrains himself in emotions in relation to other people, knows how to care.

If the thumb is straight and inflexible, then the owner of such a finger is sometimes very frank in his thoughts and statements, straightforwardness is also inherent in him.

The first phalanges of the fingers have three varieties:

pointed,

quadrangular,

spatulate,

Each of them has its own character traits. You should also pay attention to the "knots" - thickening on the fingers. If the "knot" (between the 1st and 2nd phalanx of the finger) is highly developed, then this indicates the spirit of order, systematic thinking. Another node (between the 2nd and 3rd phalanx) characterizes the love of order in worldly sense. The first "knot" is never alone, but is always accompanied by the second, but the 2nd can be even when the 1st is not found.

They characterize a daring, enterprising, boastful person who is mainly interested in the material values ​​​​of life. People with such fingers strive for comfort, for sensual pleasures. Owners of spatulate fingers can confidently be called practitioners, they can not stand any kind of theory. Such people respect physical strength, are capable of handicraft work and scientific practice. They rarely have a love for philosophy, poetry.

If spade-shaped fingers do not have “knots” or there are few of them, then we can say about a person that he basically acts, guided by his instincts, feelings. The owner of such fingers learns quickly through practice. He can be a useful figure in the practical arts and quite successfully prove himself in applied knowledge.

"Knobby" spatulate fingers indicate that a person is always weighing his decisions. Competent calculation is one of its main features. Such a person can become a good engineer, architect, military man.

Man with quadrangular fingers accustomed to order, regularity in his actions, he is organized, prone to reflection, philosophical reasoning. People with such fingers will be able to achieve success in architecture, literature, sciences.

“Smooth” quadrangular fingers speak of a person who can fall in love with something or be interested in something completely unconsciously, sometimes without any reason.

"Knotty" on quadrangular fingers indicate that their owner will always carefully consider everything before proceeding with any action.

They characterize people inclined to the humanities, to art.

"Smooth" pointed fingers indicate the ability to plastic art, painting, sculpture, architecture and poetry. People with such fingers are romantic, they are very religious, they strive for freedom, they like to get aesthetic pleasure from everything beautiful, they bow to beauty, they are rarely interested in material values.

"Knotty" on pointed fingers indicate that their owner always strives to know the truth, to understand everything. Such a person is very democratic in relation to others.

FINGERS - PLANETS.

Each finger bears the name of one of the planets among the gypsies and serves as a representative of the properties of this planet.

The thumb is Apollo.
Index - Jupiter.
Middle - Saturn.
Nameless - Sun.
Little finger - Mercury.

So, how can the future and present of a person be determined by the structure of the fingers?

Thumb (Apollo)
Pointed - talent, dependence on inspiration. But if the rest of the fingers are not pointed, but of some other form - superficiality, talkativeness.
Square - sincerity, truthfulness, reason.
Indefinite form - solidity, commercial ability, desire for wealth.
Spatula shape - dramatic abilities, quickness of thought, mobility.

Index finger (Jupiter)
Pointed - inspiration.
Square - dreaminess.
Spatula - a penchant for mysticism and everything mysterious, mistakes and misconceptions are possible.

Middle finger (Saturn)
Pointed - frivolity, gullibility, carelessness.
Square - seriousness, solidity.
Bloated - Sadness and suicidal tendencies.
Spatula - gloominess, depression of character, misanthropy, hypochondria.

Ring finger (Sun)
In all its forms, to one degree or another (depending on other signs), it serves as a manifestation of strength, love for family life, striving for well-being.

Little finger (Mercury).
Pointed - a tendency to mysticism, cunning, to theological sciences, eloquence and forethought.
Square - the ability to experiment, a penchant for inventions, the ability to clearly and clearly express one's thoughts, a logical mind.
Spatula - a penchant for everything exotic, "beating on the floor", both in life and in science and art. With bad inclinations - a talented thief, forger and swindler.

LENGTH OF JOINTS AND CHARACTER.
The length of the finger and individual joints also has its own meaning in gypsy palmistry. So, short-sighted and observant people have a straight and short index finger. In melancholics, the fingers of Saturn (middle) take on very large sizes. The size of Apollo's finger (large) corresponds to talent, the desire for wealth. Little fingers (fingers of Mercury) are the same length as the fourth finger, most often in people devoted to science. If the finger of Jupiter (index) is longer than the rest, pride or religiosity will prevail in life. If Saturn (middle) - predestination, dependence on fate. If Apollo (nameless) - art or wealth will prevail, looking at the lines. If Mercury (little finger) - science or cunning. If Apollo (thumb) or Mercury (little finger) is longer than Saturn (middle), then art or science will triumph over rock.

JOINTS.
The value, the ratio of the joints of the fingers also plays a certain role in divination by the hand of the gypsies. 1st joint means the divine area; 2nd - abstract area and 3rd - material area.

JOINTS OF THE INDEX FINGER.
If, compared to other joints, the 1st joint of Jupiter is long, this indicates inspiration, religiosity.
If the 2nd joint is longer - ambition, pride. If the 3rd joint is more developed and long - the desire for honors, pride, the desire to command.

JOINTS OF THE MIDDLE FINGER.
The 1st joint of Saturn, long and wide, indicates sadness, superstition. If it is very developed - the desire for death. The 2nd joint, depending on how strongly developed it is, indicates a greater or lesser ability for agriculture and the exact sciences, and with even fingers, for abstract sciences. Elongation of the 3rd joint - stinginess.

JOINTS OF THE THUMB.
In Apollo: elongated 1st joint - an irresistible passion for the arts. 2nd - the desire for self-improvement through labor, reasonableness and logic.
3rd - vanity, the desire to show oneself from a favorable point of view.

JOINTS OF THE LITTLE FINGER.
Mercury has an elongated 1st joint - love of science and eloquence. 2nd - propensity for commerce. 3rd - cunning and dexterity.

Chapter VII. About the phalanx, its length, depth, and so on.
A complete union of the correct number of rows is called a phalanx; the distance occupied by a line of commanders is called the front, face, tip, main line, mouth of the battle; and people - chiefs, commanders and heads of ranks. The rest of the phalanx, from front to rear, is its depth. The line of leaders and followers, elongated in length, is called a line, and the one that stretches in depth is called a row. The phalanx is divided into two major divisions along an assumed line running through its center from the front to the rear, one of which is called the right wing or head, and the other the left wing or tail. The bisection line is called the umbilical cord, mouth, or phalanx section. In the rear of the main corps of heavily armed troops (forming a phalanx in the proper sense), light infantry is located, and horsemen are placed in the rear of light infantry; though light troops and cavalry sometimes occupy different positions, as we shall show later. - We will now begin to consider what should be the relative proportion of heavily armed troops, light infantry and cavalry, and how to arrange them in the proper order. We must also explain by what means, under the influence of necessity, the order of battle can be quickly changed; to which we must add the theory of military movements, and how they apply to each branch of the service.
Chapter VIII. About the number of infantry and cavalry.
Establishing the number of soldiers needed to form an army is not an easy task; for the size of the army must be determined by the quality of the recruits, and generally depends on the circumstances. However, in general it can be assumed that there should be such a number as will be sufficient for various combat movements: that is, if we consider it necessary to double the phalanx, we will increase it in any proportion, or reduce it. Therefore, it will always be advisable to form a phalanx of as many people as can be divided in half, down to an individual. For this reason, most of the tacticians form a phalanx of 16.384 heavily armed, half of this number are light infantry, and half of the last number are cavalry; the number 16.384 allows reduction to one by multiple divisions by two. It is for this reason that such a number is accepted as appropriate. Therefore, since we assumed that each row should consist of sixteen people, then there will be 1024 rows in the phalanx.
Chapter IX. Regarding the names of individual units, as well as officials of the Phalanx.
The ranks are drawn up in the correct order, each division has its own name. Two rows form dilochia of 32 people whose commander is called dilochite. The four rows are tetrarchy and the chief is called a tetrarch, commanding 64 fighters. The two tetrarchies form taxis, consisting of 128 people, or eight rows, led by taxiarch. Two taxis make up syntagma, consisting of sixteen rows or 256 people, commanded by syntagmatarch. But some syntagma of 256 people is called xenagia, and the commander xenagos. There are five supernumeraries in each syntagma - a standard-bearer, a rear commander, a trumpeter, an assistant, and a herald. It is obvious that the syntagma must be square in shape, since it has sixteen people in length and the same in depth. Two syntagmas, consisting of only 512 people and 32 rows, are headed by pentakosiarch. Two pentakosyarchy called chiliarchy, which consists of 1024 people and 64 rows; commanded by chiliarch. The two united chiliarchies are called merarchy, consisting of 2048 people and 128 rows, led by merarch. But some call this unit telos, and his boss telearch. The two telearchies form phalangarchy, consisting of 4096 people and 256 rows, and its chief is called phalangarh: but some call it strategy and her boss is called strategist. Two phalangarchies make up diphalangia, 8192 people and 512 rows. Some call this unit meros: Actually it's a whole wing. Two diphalanges form tetraphalangarchy. - In total, a complete phalanx is thus divided into two wings, four phalangarchia, eight merarchia, 16 chiliarchia, 32 pentakosiarchia, 64 syntagmatarchia, 128 taxiarchia, 256 tetrarchia, 512 dilochia, and 1024 rows.

Phalanx formation
Chapter x. Concerning the rank of the officers of the Phalanx, according to the known merit of each man.
The best and first in rank phalangarh stands on the right wing, and the next in order - on the left. The one who ranks third in the assessment of prowess stands with the second officer on the left side, closer to the middle part of the phalanx. The fourth is on the right in the middle with the first officer. Thus, the first and fourth phalangarchies have commanders of the first and fourth degrees of valor; and the second and third departments have chiefs with proportional degrees of merit. Now we will prove that the first and fourth divisions are equal in combat capability to the second and third, since the sum of skill and courage is evenly distributed in each. - Merarchs will similarly be placed so that the one who is ranked first in Excellency is on the left and the second behind him is on the right in the second phalangarchy, while the one who is considered third in dignity is on the left in the third division, and in the same way the fourth is placed on the right in the fourth phalangarchy. Similarly, the chiefs of the rows in each tetrarchy are ordered so that the chief of the first row takes precedence, and the chief of the fourth row holds the position following him. By these means the dilochias have an equal part of the power; since the first dilochia has chiefs of the first and fourth degrees, and the second - of the second and third ranks of merit. This is clear from a mathematical point of view; for when there are proportions in four similar magnitudes, the sum of the first and fourth magnitude will be equal to the sum of the second and third. Now, having four tetrarchies in each syntagma, we bring each tetrarch to a similar proportion, so that in each syntagma, the commander of the first tetrarchy is on the right and also takes first place, and the commander of the fourth tetrarchy is placed on the left and takes place next to the first, the commander of the third the tetrarchy is on the right, and is considered third in rank, and the commander of the second tetrarchy stands on the left, and is considered fourth in order. - The same proportions exist in the highest circles of command.
Chapter XI. About the distance between people in an open, closed and dense formation.
We must now refer to the space allotted for the fully armed soldier, both in length and depth. There are different proportions. First of all, when people are sometimes placed in open formation, if the occasion so requires, and if they are so arranged, then each person covers an area of ​​​​four cubits; in close formation he is given two cubits, and in close formation one cubit. A close formation occurs when the leader shortens the distance and reduces the length of the phalanx, closing ranks and ranks, which reduces both length and depth, while still leaving enough room for movement. - The connection of the shield to the shield, or tight formation, is carried out when the entire phalanx is further reduced in length and depth, so that due to the contact of a soldier with a soldier, they cannot deviate either to the right or to the left. A close formation is observed when the commander enters into battle with the enemy; a tight formation is resorted to when he wants to firmly withstand the enemy onslaught. It follows that when the commanders of 1024 ranks are placed along the front of the phalanx in open order, they occupy 4096 cubits, which is equal to ten stades and ninety-six cubits, when placed in close formation, they occupy five stadia and forty-eight cubits, and in tight line, two stadia and twenty-four cubits.

Open, closed and dense orders
Chapter XII. On shields and phalanx pikes.
The weapons of the phalanx are shields and spears. The Macedonian copper shield is the best. It should not be too prominent, and should be eight palms in diameter. The pike should not be shorter than eight cubits, and the longest pike should not exceed such a length that a person can handle it with ease.
Chapter XIII. About the description of fighters suitable for the position of chief of the row.
It is necessary that the commanders of the ranks, who command all the ranks throughout the entire phalanx, be selected soldiers in service, superior to the rest in size, strength and military skill, because this first rank preserves the entire phalanx and is of great importance. Just as a sword does work with its blade, reinforced by the span and the weight of the steel in the butt; - the line of chiefs of the ranks can be recognized as the blade of the phalanx, receiving its power, heaviness, and driving force from the mass that presses from the rear. Attention should also be paid to the second rank; for the lances of those who compose it are exposed along with those in the front; and placed immediately after the latter, it is of great benefit in many critical situations. In the event that the head of the row fell or was injured, the fighter behind him takes his place, closing the gap in the ranks, and maintains its integrity. The third rank, including those that follow in succession, are classified accordingly, one by one, according to the strength and prowess they possess.
Chapter XIV. Of the Macedonian phalanx, and also of the proper length of the pike.
The Macedonian phalanx was considered invincible due to the nature of the formation itself. Each soldier, fully armed, when he takes close formation, at the moment of entering the battle, occupies only two cubits. The length of the pike at the beginning of the establishment of the phalanx was sixteen cubits, but now, in fact, fourteen, of which two are reserved for grasping from hand to hand holding it, and the remaining twelve come forward. Thus the lances of the second rank, having lost four cubits in length, protrude ten cubits from the forward rank. The peaks of the third rank protrude eight cubits to the front; and in the fourth - six cubits, the fifth - four cubits, the sixth - protrude two cubits from the head of the row. The men in the remaining ranks behind do not have pike pieces that can extend beyond the front rank. Thus, five or six peaks come forward before the soldiers along the front; of this there can be no doubt, but it must seem dreadful to the attackers, and that every single man must receive a tremendous influx of stamina, bristled around with five or six lances, and supported by men in his rear. And although those who form the ranks behind the sixth cannot reach the enemy with their pikes, yet by pressing forward with the weight of their bodies they increase the momentum of the phalanx, and leave no hope for those in the front to flee. There are some who will have pikes in the back ranks longer than those in the front, so that the spear points of the third or even fourth rank can be in line with those of the first rank, and put pressure on the enemy equally. - In addition, the supernumerary commander of the rear of each syntagma must be a quick-witted person; he must see to it that every soldier in the whole formation maintains his position in line and row; he must force any of them who have abandoned their post through cowardice or for any reason to retake it; and, in particular, in the case of the adoption of a dense order, he should force his people to come as close as possible; because it gives strength to the whole corps: it is of the utmost importance and for these reasons, not only in the front, but also in the rear, the soldiers must have someone who is equal in rank to the senior officer.

Advancing the peak to the front

Phalanx. - Φαλαγξ . The origin of this word is unclear. This means, however, a significant number of people, densely built in one line. This word is as old as Homer; and it was used by Caesar. In any case, it means a squad of soldiers lined up in order. In Elian, this word means the Macedonian phalanx, consisting of a given number of people arranged in a special order.
Length. - Elian expresses the length of the phalanx with a word μήκος , mekos, longitudo.
Heads of series - Our author, in this abundance of titles of the first series, some of them quite poetic, uses words - μετωπον , metopon, προσωπον , prosopon, παραταξις , parataxis, ζυγον , zugon, στομα , stoma, ηγεμονες , hegemones, πρωστοταται , prostotatai, πρωτολοχια , protolochia.
Depth. - Βοθος , bathos, profunditas.
Right wing or head. - What is called a wing here - in the original κερας , keras, horns.
Left wing or tail. - Word ουρα , Oura, Theodore Gaza translated as pes, but Arcerius - literally cauda. There is no word in the English language that can show its meaning without difficulty. This will give the reader some idea of ​​the difficulties the translator had to contend with. Bingham makes it a tail.
Bisection line. - Διχοτομια , dicotomy. Elian speaks here of two large divisions of the phalanx, but he by no means asserts that it cannot, when the need arises, separate. Since lightly armed troops and cavalry are stationed behind the phalanx and behind each other, it is clear that they cannot always act with the speed that in many cases may be required; do not rush themselves to the front of the phalanx, wherever the need arises, in any part of the formation; but also do not retreat hastily to the starting position, except for the presence of intervals of more than one, pro re natd. Here we must accept the expressions of Elian as representing the phalanx in the parade. At the end of this chapter he says what might have saved the ancient commentators a great deal of trouble: "light troops and cavalry sometimes occupy different positions" from those described and, of course, the order of the phalanx must be adapted to the positions they might eventually occupy. . The dividing line is called in the original ομφαλος , omphalos, literally navel - here translated as umbilical cord; she is also called στομα , stoma, mouth and αραρος , araros, or αραγος , aragos, from αρασσω , arasso, amputo, - a bscindo. This last term was not translated by Bingham.
Now we begin - It has been deemed more correct to stick to the original Greek than to slavishly follow Bingham. This passage at the end of chapter 7 is part of chapter 8 in his translation. In the edition of Arcerius, he forms the conclusions of the 7th.
In the previous chapter, the units and size of the phalanx were established, and the positions of heavily armed, light infantry and cavalry were given. As for the numerical composition of the phalanx; this number should be determined, as a rule, on the basis of the call of recruits. For such numbers, which cannot be well drawn up into battle order, will cause more confusion than contribute to order, without which the battle cannot be saved: therefore, such a number should be chosen as is most adapted for this purpose.
sufficient for various combat movements - Always moving in combat does not cause a general change in the shape of the phalanx. When rotated to the right or left, the original shape is retained. Similarly, after the counter-march and turn around, each soldier assumes the same relative position he had originally, and no change in length or depth occurs. Therefore, the movements implied by Elian are doubling; either an expansion of the front, or an increase in depth, in any case, the shape of the phalanx changes. Thus, the front of the phalanx is lengthened, and it is compressed to a shape close to a square; the first, by expanding the ranks, and the last, by doubling the ranks. If, on the other hand, the original shape is supposed to be restored, it will be necessary to execute reverse movements; ranks should be doubled and ranks reduced. By these means the phalanx can be extended longitudinally, or in depth, in any desired proportion. As we double the ranks, we reduce the depth of the phalanx, while doubling the ranks shortens its length. For example - if a phalanx has a depth of sixteen people, to expand the ranks twice, its depth will be reduced to eight people, and when doubling again, there will be only four people in depth. Thus, the phalanx will consist of four lines, and each line will be 4096 thousand people. In this case, the front of the phalanx will be four times larger than that of the original. Similarly, by doubling the rows, (of which there are 1024 in the phalanx of Eliana); - after the first action, only 512 rows will remain, the number of fighters forming the advanced rank, after the second doubling, the front will lose 768 people from the initial number, and will consist of only 256 people. The phalanx, at first having only 16, would thus be 64 men deep, and in order to restore the original form, it would be necessary to double the ranks twice. It should be understood, however, that the term doubling the ranks does not mean an increase in the number of ranks in this proportion, but the number of fighters is doubled by transferring them to odd ranks, namely: the second to the first, the fourth to the third, etc. The use of doubling will be explained in notes to chapter 29.
which can be divided in half. - Elian gives the phalanx so many people that can be divided by two equally, until we get one, and the number he takes is 16.384. Any number that does not allow for such a division leaves a certain number of extra people at each doubling, and thus both the ranks and the rows are wrong. Those who are familiar with the military maneuvers of this day know that when there is an odd number of rows, the outermost row cannot be doubled. Therefore, it is quite understandable that the ranks of the phalanx should consist of eight or sixteen people each, for a number less than eight, with the exception of four or two (which do not apply to the depth of the phalanx), nor any number between eight and sixteen, cannot be reduced by divided by two to one, and any number greater than sixteen does not serve this purpose unless it is obtained by doubling the number sixteen. The row of Cyrus, as we learn from Xenophon (Cyrop. lib.ii.), consisted of twelve people, but this number is divided by two, decreasing to three, but not lower. In the ancient row of the Greeks there were ten people, therefore, it was called a dozen ( δεκας - decuria). When the number was increased to twelve, the row still retained the ten name. But ten is divisible by two, decreasing to five, and can no longer be divided by two. Odd numbers up to sixteen cannot be divided by two without a remainder. If the rows contain more than sixteen or fewer than 32 people, you cannot split them in half in the way Elian indicates. So, if we fix 16,384 men for a phalanx, this number will give 1024 rows, each 16 men deep, which can be doubled and doubled until they are reduced to one row.
The phalanx should consist of 16.384 heavily armed - Elian, on the authority of those tactics whom he studied, fixes the number of the phalanx at 16.384 people. We have already observed that the number may be greater or less; but this was the number of which the Macedonian phalanx consisted. Appian seems to be of the same opinion. "At Antiochus, the entire army consisted of 70,000; of these, the strongest part was the Macedonian phalanx - 16,000 people, lined up as it was organized by Alexander and Philip. He placed it in the center, dividing it into 10 parts, 1600 people each, and in each of this part along the front was 50 people, and in depth - 32; on the flanks of each part there were elephants, only 22. The appearance of this phalanx was like a wall, and the elephants were towers. (Syrian affairs.) We have here, following Appian, what he called the Macedonian phalanx, but not because the Macedonians served in it, but because it was armed and drilled according to the Macedonian model. Antiochus could not have had as many as 16,000 Macedonians in his army. He was not the king of Macedonia; whose monarch Philip, son of Demetrius, was an enemy of Antiochus and was in league with the Romans. Following Appian directly says that "the phalanx was built as it was organized by Alexander and Philip." Antiochus may be said to have inherited this order of battle, being a direct descendant of Seleucus, one of Alexander's generals. Titus Livy (Decad. IV. Lib. VII.) says that they were armed according to the Macedonian model, whence we can conclude that the soldiers were not, in fact, from Macedonia. The "royal system," he says, "was much more colorful because of the many tribes and differences in weapons and types of auxiliary units. 16,000 were armed according to the Macedonian model, such warriors are called phalangites. This was the middle of the system. The king broke them along the front line into ten parts ", arranged in such a way that two elephants stood in each gap. In depth, this building reached thirty-two rows. It was the color of the royal army. Its appearance was generally awe-inspiring, but the elephants towering in bulk among the warriors were especially terrifying." We learn from Livy and Appian, by comparing these testimonies, that there were 16,000 people called phalangites, built in Macedonian, in the manner introduced by Philip and Alexander, and that they were divided into ten parts, with intervals between them, and also that the phalanx was 32 people deep (and this is exactly a double Macedonian row). Livy does not give us the length of the phalanx, but Appian says that each of the ten parts was fifty men along the front, adding up to five hundred, and by multiplying the length by the depth we get 16,000, a number in which both Titus Livius and Appian agree. . However, there are still difficulties, because these authors and Aelian differ slightly - the first determines 16.000 people in the Macedonian phalanx, and Aelian gives 16.384. As for Livy, he was a Roman author, and of course he got his information from others, but Appian was a Greek, since after Ptolemy approved the succession to the Egyptian crown for his family, the Alexandrians were mostly Greek. His history shows a good acquaintance with the Greek military discipline, and with their battle formations, and therefore we can rely more boldly on his authority. So, although according to him, roundly, the phalanx consisted of 16,000 people, but he obviously mentions people stationed on the flanks of each unit. If he places 22 on each flank of each division, then 20 flanks in 10 units will give 440, while Elian only gives 384, in addition to 16,000. If, on the other hand, we assign 22 men to each of the 10 parts, the sum will be 120. However, in any sense, taking his words, we see that Appian distributes more than 16,000 men in the Macedonian phalanx. Perhaps a mistake in the designation in the original Greek, and perhaps 22 should be read as 32. If this is allowed (and we must take into account that the Greeks and other ancient writers did not know convenient Arabic numerals), taking ten times 32 people, allocated to each unit, which will add up to 320, and two more times 32 for those who stood on the outer flanks, the sum will be 384, which, added to 16,000, will be the exact number of the phalanx according to Elian. Heavily armed infantry should be 16.384. Let's move on to light infantry.
(The author is cunning as best he can to get the right number. Firstly, it is not clear where he got people on the flanks of the regiments. Appian speaks of elephants, and there were 22 of them in total - that is, two between the regiments, and two on the common flanks Secondly, if we assume that there were 32 men on each flank of 10 regiments, it is not difficult to understand that there should be 11 such additional ranks, and not 12. The required 12 additional ranks can be obtained if we assume that the phalanx stood in two lines. Agnostik.)
Half of that number is light infantry. - heavy infantry, according to the Greeks, is the strength of the army and, therefore, its number is the largest. In the reports that have come down to us, there were twice as many light troops. The latter, as we learn from Xenophon, (Cyrop. 1. VII.), according to Cyrus, were not so highly valued. "He also took with him many Lidians, and left weapons to those of them in whom he saw a proud addiction to beautiful armor, war horses and chariots and an effort to do everything in a way that would please him. And in whom he noticed an unwillingness to follow him , from those he took away the horses and gave them to the Persians, who were the first to go on a campaign with him, and burned the weapons; he also forced these Lidians to follow the army with only slings. In general, he forced all people under his rule and deprived of weapons to practice throwing from a sling, believing that this type of weapon is most attached to slaves. - When the strength of the light infantry, in any given conscription, was increased, then the fully armed troops had to decrease; and the army was weakened in the same proportion. Lightly armed units cannot constantly maintain a long encounter; and in case of pressure they either fled or retreated to the heavily armed for support. They are applicable, however, to various combat missions, in combination with other branches of the military. The proportion set by Elyan for them, half that of the heavily armed, seems reasonable and provides a number of advantages. The Romans, however, allowed no more than one-fourth of the light infantry in their armies. Legion (says Polybius, 1. IV.), contained 4200 infantry. Of these, 600 were called triarii, 1,200 hastati, 1,200 principes, totaling 3,000 men, and the rest were velites, corresponding to the Greek light infantry, although somewhat differently armed. Aelian informs us that the Greek light troops did not have protective armor, but used only offensive weapons such as bows, javelins or slings. Polybius (1 VI.) writes that the weapons of the Velites were a sword, a small shield and darts; a Spanish sword, a shield of round shape, one and a half feet in diameter, and the shafts of darts three feet long, as thick as a finger, with tips almost a foot long. Titus Livy (Decad. IV. 1. i.) notes the skirmishes that arose between the horsemen of Philip of Macedon, and the Roman consul Sulpicius, comparing the opposing armies, says that each of them had detachments of light troops attached to the cavalry, but, when entering into battle, the Roman velites defeated their opponents, being armed in a way well adapted to this type of battle, the sword and shield allowed them to immediately attack the enemy and defend themselves. The number of lightly armed troops fixed by Elian will be 8,192 men, which, placed eight deep, form 1,024 ranks in the rear of the fully armed phalangites.
Half of the last number is cavalry, - The number of cavalry attached to the phalanx, according to Elian, was 4096. The total number of heavy and light infantry in the army is 24.576, the cavalry of the total will be 1/6. We learn from Diodorus Siculus (I.xvii.) that this ratio was observed in Alexander, when he opposed Darius, he had about 30,000 foot and 5,000 horse. With the agreement of many authors, however, it appears that although there was an impressive preponderance of the relationship between infantry and cavalry, it nevertheless always controlled the circumstances. The Romans brought a much smaller share of the cavalry into the field. According to Polybius (1. VI century), the cavalry, in comparison with the infantry, was 1/9 in the legion. It is established, both in regard to nations and generals, that they always tried to keep to the full share of that branch of the army, in which they placed the greatest confidence; guided, contrary to the nature of the army opposing them, by the types of troops that they possessed, and the appearance of the country, which was the theater of action. Aelian reserves for us the relative numbers of infantry and cavalry, as foreseen and regulated by the best ancient tactics.
We have in this chapter, the most clear and precise analysis of the phalanx, which consists of rows located in direct contact, and each element of which consists of a constant number of rows, increasing in double proportion. Simple lochos, stichos or a series, we have already considered. (See chapter V)
Dilochy. - Διλοχια , dilochia, - this word means two connected rows, its commander was called διλοχιτης , dilochita.
Tetrarchy. - Τετραρχια , tetrarchia, commander τετραχη , tetrarcha. The word tetrarchy means here the commander of the four ranks; this sometimes signifies sovereignty over a fourth of the kingdom. Thus, Herod the Great, who was confirmed king of Judea by decree of the Roman Senate, after his death divided the kingdom into four parts, ruled by tetrarchs. Herod Antipas, one of his sons, was a tetrarch in Galilee; Archelaus owned two-quarters of his father's kingdom, and Philip the rest. Lysanias (mentioned in St. Luke, ch. III) was a tetrarch in Abilene, a province that was not part of the dominions of Herod the Great. (See Parkhurst).
Taxis. - Τάξις , taxis. This word, which, in its basic sense, means an order or a group, has a specific meaning here - a division of the phalanx, consisting of 128 people. Various numbers were attributed to the taxis, in accordance with the customs different peoples what we learn from ancient authors. Its commander was called ταξιαρχος , taxiarchos.
syntagma. - Συνταγμα , syntagma. This word comes from συντασσω , syntasso, put in order; hence the grammatical term syntax. The syntagma was sometimes applied to any large detachment of an army, and sometimes to an entire army; Elian himself uses the word in this way, but, taking into account the technical sense, we must limit him to a detachment of 256 people, forming phalanx divisions. The commander is called συταγματαρχης , syntagmatarches.
Xenagy. - Ξεναγια , xenagia. This word comes from ξενος , xenos, foreigner, or outsider, and it is suggested that 256 men, or syntagmas, could mean a fraction of the auxiliaries mixed with the main body of the phalanx, in those cases where it was considered correct that they should serve together. We meet the term xenagy applied to a given number of light troops, as will be shown when the characteristics of this branch of service are discussed in chapter XVI. Commander name xenagy Obviously, by analogy, ξεναγος , xenagus.
Overpants. - Εκτακτοι , ectactoi; fighters are not classified with those who make up the usual number of ranks, therefore, obviously, should be taken for officers.
Standard-bearer. - Σημοφορος , semeiophorus. We call this officer Ensign. The invention of standards by Diodorus Siculus (Lib. i.) dates back to the Egyptians. They carried images of animals that people worshiped. Hence the origin of the holiness that was once associated with military banners. Their use is aimed at maintaining order and, in case the army was in turmoil, the banners represented the places of assembly. It is worth mentioning that Caesar, in case of disorder during the battle, ordered the soldiers to rally and form anew around the first standard they could find; because, while the soldiers were looking for their own, the opportunity to engage in action with effect might be lost. (De bello Gall. lib. II.) - Ancient standards are usually solid, such as the figure of an eagle used by the ancient Persians, as Xenophon tells us: (Cyrop. 1. VII.) and by the Romans. The Roman cavalry used a small piece of square-shaped cloth, usually bearing the name of the reigning emperor. Bingham disapproves of our banners; due to the effect of the wind on them, they hit the faces of ensigns and soldiers who stand nearby. - The place of the standards was in front of the parade, and, for security, in the center of the syntagma or company of 256 people, on the battlefield. Hence the name antesignani given to those who fought in position in front of the standard, and postsignani, the name of those who fought for him. It seems that the standard-bearers wore defensive armor, but did not burden themselves with a shield.
Rear commander. - Ουραγός , ouragus. This position is very similar to a lieutenant in our troops. In chapter XIV Elian establishes his duties.
Trumpeter. - Σαλπιγκτής , salpinges. There is almost no need to consider the use of a pipe. She served to call the soldiers, to measure their step, to give a signal to speak or withdraw, etc. Tradition says that for the first time the pipe was used in battle by Tyrrhenus, the son of Hercules; and Bacchus is said to have invented the drums while on a campaign in India. Alexander found the Indians beating the drum, not blowing the trumpet, - " id pro cantu tubarum indis erat". This was used by the Indians instead of the sounds of the trumpet. (Q. Curtius. 1. VIII. c. 14.) The Parthians had drums. The Saracens and the Turks used them, from which, probably, the Europeans borrowed them. They were peculiar to the infantry in Bingham's time and the trumpets in the cavalry. Plutarch tells, in the biography of Lycurgus, that the Spartans marched to the sound of flutes. Therefore, the use of the flute is unquestionable.
Assistant. - Ὑπηρετης , hyperetes. Bingham translates this word with the modern term sergeant. It can be translated like this if he understood in advance that the word sergeant means, in its original sense, a subordinate officer, but not that military duties ὑπηρετης or assistant, were exactly those that are inherent in the modern sergeant. The word sergeant comes from the Latin word; - thus, services ad legem, servant of the law; services ad arma, military sergeant; we have civil executive assigned to our Houses of Parliament is called sergeant at arms. Ὑπηρετης meant a strictly subordinate rower on a ship, from there it spread to designate, usually, a subordinate official. This can perhaps be resolved by adding such a philological note that this word in the dative case (Luke, iv. 20.) is translated as " the minister", a term which must, of course, mislead the English reader and illiterate listener. It would be better to say "servant". It is translated ministro in the Vulgate, in Beza, in Junius and Tremellius. Ὑπηρετης by Elian, translated as minister Gaza and Arcerius.
Herald. - Στρατοκηρυξ , stratokerux, soldier-herald. The herald was used to repeat the orders of a superior officer in cases where they could not be conveyed by the sounds of the trumpet. His place was next to the commander, except in combat, when he could not be heard. A person with a clear and loud voice has always been chosen for this position. Xenophon (Anab. 1. II.) gives a pithy example of the rare use of a herald. Panic seized the army during the night; then a herald was summoned to offer a reward for discovering the originator of the confusion. Here it seems that the herald performed a service for which neither trumpets nor signals are intended.
Square shape. - the officers just listed were considered in excess of their proper numbers. The square shape is obtained from 16 men in ranks and 16 in columns, for a total of 256, obviously not counting the five attached officers.
Pentacosiarch. - Πεντακοσιαρχης , pentacosiarches. Elian deviates slightly from her usual way of listing here. He did not say that two syntagmas form pentacosiarchy commanded by pentacosiarch"Ah, but he immediately gives the name of the command post. Pentacosiarch, as the term implies command of 500 men. This is supposed to be a rounded number, the exact value is 512.
Chiliarchy. - Χιλιαρχια , chiliarchia from χίλιοι , chilioi, mille, thousand, means a detachment of more than a thousand people. Elian's chiliarchy consists of 1024 members. The term chiliarch almost matches Tribunus militum Romans, so used by Plutarch. The generals called "high captains" in the English New Testament, from Mark, vi. 21, are thousandaires in the original. Herod hosted a dinner with τοις χιλιαρχοις. "The chief captain", Acts, XXI. 33, called χιλιαρχος in Greek.
Merarchy. - Μεραρχια , merarchia from μερος , meros, part or division.
Telos - Τελος , telos. This word has many meanings, among other things, it represents a squad of soldiers, a cohort, etc.
Phalangarchy. - Φαλανγαρχια , phalangarchia. The division called the phalangarchy was the fourth part of the entire phalanx.
Strategy. - Στρατηγια , Strategy. Phalangarchy, consisting of 4096 people, could be considered a small army in itself, and was placed under the command of a chief equal in rank to the current generals, called στρατηγος , strategist.
Diphalanarchy. - Double phalangarchy.
Meros. - Μερος , half, large phalanx unit forming an entire wing ( κερας ) of the entire body. Obviously, two wings completed the phalanx, which consisted of four phalangarchies. - The phalanx contains 16.384 heavily armed soldiers; in addition, Elian specifically listed the officers (with the exception of two di phalangarchs, and the commander of the entire phalanx): -

It was extremely important that the phalanx keep its shape during the battle. As long as she maintained her cohesion, it was almost impossible to influence her; but if one part is strong, and will advance on the enemy faster than the other, or, vice versd if, due to the indecision of the commanders, or for any other reason, some units fall behind, her front will be broken and the system weakened; and even a small detachment thrown into the gap can cause irreparable disorder. The power of the phalanx was thus balanced in all its parts with the utmost precision. The number of fighters, and the nature of their weapons, and the position of each person in each division were the same as everyone else; but together with the physical strength, the moral energy of the army, attention was paid with the highest clarity. Mental abilities were calculated, and each person was classified according to his courage and martial prowess. The commanders were placed in front, each in his own specific position, in accordance with his known merit, and in such relative positions with other officers as to balance the strength of each part of the phalanx.
The best and first in the rank of the phalangars - the location of these and other officers was determined by numerical proportion in relation to the alleged mental abilities; and though at first glance it seems refined, it is in fact just and should have been accompanied by the happiest consequences. - There are four phalangarchies in each phalanx, one of these divisions will serve as an exemplary example, the rules of which apply to all others. Four quantities that are equally superior to each other are compared with each other; the sum of the first and fourth will be equal to the sum of the second and third. Thus 1, 2, 3, 4 exceed each other in equal proportion; the sum of 1 and 4 is 5, and the sum of 2 and 3 is also 5. Thus, 2, 8, 14, 20, exceeding each other by 6; the first number 2, added to the fourth 20, adds up to the same amount as the second and third, namely 22. Let the lines
2=========3_4=========1
represent the right and left wings of the phalangarchy, the officer first in ability and prowess will stand on the right wing as 1, the officer next in rank will stand as 2, the third as 3, and the fourth as 4, it is clear that each wing will have commanders whose sum knowledge in the art of war, and whose personal bravery will be equal; 4 plus 1 equals 5 on the right wing, and 2 plus 3 on the left wing makes the same number. The same principle applies equally to all units and divisions, and to the phalanx as a whole.
It must be a matter of great care to know the exact area occupied by the phalanx in open, close, or tight formation, in order to choose the proper one according to the situation, and in which it can operate best. The rough terrain must practically destroy its properties, such as unity and strength, and it seems necessary that the commander, be aware of the space required in accordance with each of the three forms, in order to be able to occupy such distances as will provide the phalanx with strength and preserve it. characteristic shape. Entangled among ravines, or marshes, or heaps of stones, stumps, or in dense thickets, such a detachment can suffer greatly and fall into an extremely dangerous position. The view of the military during the centuries, while the phalanx held the battlefield, was not to study the length of the paths, but to more closely examine the terrain that the phalanx should occupy when it was built, and the lines along which it would march. By allowing the commander to pay attention to all these and similar questions, Elian very correctly gives an accurate measurement of the space required for such a corps, in any of the three predicaments in which it may find itself, open, closed, tight or closed battle formation.
four cubits. - A Greek cubit is approximately equal to one and a half English feet, which gives six feet (approx. 2 meters) for each fully armed soldier. Considering that he carried a large shield that hung on his left shoulder, half in front and half behind him, and was armed with a spear fourteen cubits in length (equal to twenty-one English feet (approx. 8 meters)), which he carried on his right shoulder projecting several feet in a slanting direction in front of him, this space was as small as could be allowed for him in marching order.
Two are allowed - When in close formation ( πυκνωσις , pycnosis) the soldier occupies a space equal to three feet. This formation was intended at the moment of making contact with the enemy, either to attack him or to repel the attack, but during the actual engagement, often, if not constantly, resorted to close formation.
One cubit - dense, closed, or dense order, called in the original συνασπισμος , synaspismus, was formed by firmly connecting shield to shield, which seemed to the enemy an ideal wall, almost impregnable due to the exposed pikes, keeping it at a distance (see ch. XIV.), while the armor worn by the phalangites protected them from projectile weapons. It's true that synaspismus, putting shield on shield, gives us the space allotted for the soldier in relation to the rank, but in the chapter just given, and also from what Polybius tells us (Lib.17.), we know that the soldiers in the ranks stood with two cubits apart, that is, three feet apart.
elbows. - (approx. 2 km.) The space occupied by the entire phalanx in open formation is 6144 feet; this, however, refers only to the length of the phalanx, where each of the 1024 chiefs of the ranks occupied 4 cubits, approximately equal to one and a half English feet, which gives 6144 feet - but, as for the ranks forming the depth of the phalanx, consisting of only 16 people, occupying each four cubits, it is obvious that the sum should be 64 cubits, or 96 English feet (32 m.). Multiplying the length by the depth, we get that the phalanx should occupy an area equal to 589,824 square feet (65.536 sq. M.). The length of the front will be one mile, one furlong, six milestones and three yards in English measures. In close formation the line will be half a mile, twenty-three milestones, four feet plus a tail, or, in round numbers, 3,072 feet, (about 1 km.) and it is self-evident that in close order it will occupy only half this distance, or 1536 feet (approx. 500 m.), or a quarter of a mile, eleven milestones and ten feet six inches.
(furlong - a quarter mile. milestone - pole, an English measure of length equal to 5.029 m.)
from copper - It is assumed that Philip of Macedon, when establishing the phalanx, borrowed a lot from the Lacedaemonians, who were instructed by the decrees of Lycurgus to make shields only from copper. Xenophon (de reb. Græc. lib. iii.) admired Agesilaus, king of Sparta, for his efforts to supply his army with excellent weapons and equipment; which was shown only in copper and scarlet robes. The copper shield is easy to clean; it shone when polished; and it didn't rust. Agesilaus took great care of such military decorations that, while in winter quarters at Ephesus, he set up forges and diligently applied all the skill and skill of his armorers, offering awards and prizes to those who excelled in their art. We have this fact not only from the testimony of Xenophon, but this is also what the more elegant biographer Cornelius Nepos says - Agesilaus “Ephesum hiematum exercitum reduxit, at ibi officinis armorum institutes, magnd industrid helium apparavit; et quo studiosius armarentur, insigmusque omarentur, pramia proposuit, quibus donarentur, quorum egregia in ed re fuisset industrial.” O He paid equal attention to the education and training of his troops. " Fecit idem in exercitationum generibus, ut, qui ceteris prastitissent, eos magnis afficeret muneribus.”(See Dr. Gillies's Hist, of Greece, vol. 3. book 27.) There seems to be very little doubt that the copper shield came to the Macedonians from the Spartans.
Not too bulging - If the shields were made without rounding, they did not provide full protection for the body, so they should be bulged. The left arm, extended further, must have held him at too great a distance; but a too large recess, probably, should have interfered with the movement of the hip, and, along the upper edge, should have come into contact with the face.
in diameter - Οκταπαλαισος , octapalaistos, eight palms in diameter. The palm is usually about three inches, four inches is a foot, and therefore the diameter of the round bronze shield was two feet.
Eight cubits - Usually, expressed in English measures, this would be twelve feet. Long lances certainly have great advantages over short ones, but they should not exceed such a length that they are inconvenient to operate. Polyaenus (Lib. II.) mentions the successful stratagem of Cleonymus the Lacedomonian during the siege of Edessa. A breach was made in the walls of the city, and spearmen were sent there, armed with lances sixteen cubits (24 feet) long. Cleonymus ordered the leaders of the ranks, or the advanced rank, to abandon their pikes and seize on the long pikes of their opponents, while the subsequent ranks were to pass through the gaps and attack them vigorously in this defenseless position. The plan succeeded. Cleonymus won.
It is only necessary to turn to chapter V and the notes in order to eliminate all the difficulties that may arise in reading ch. XIII.
This whole chapter seems to be borrowed from Polybius (Lib. 17th century), from which the text of Aelian differs only in the length of the copies that protrude before the front.
The Macedonian phalanx was considered invincible. - We may note here that any new significant inventions in the art of war, at all times, uniformly ensure the victory of inventors, such as the discovery of gunpowder in this field in former times, or, the advantages obtained from horse-drawn artillery in our day. The sooner their enemies adopt such a mode of warfare, the better, unless they can counter it with a self-superior invention. The phalanx, if not invented, then improved by Philip of Macedon, and this allowed him to elevate his kingdom from the state of an insignificant state to one of the most powerful states of antiquity. Before him, Macedonia was oppressed in turn by the Athenians, the Lacedaemonians, and the Thebans. Upon accession to the throne, the country was ravaged by peons, and he was forced to pay tribute to the Illyrians; but thanks to the excellent system of tactics which he adopted, he liberated Macedonia from the barbarians, and became the head of the union of Greek states. The rise of his son, Alexander the Great, is well known. The phalanx swept away everything in its path; and it was not the Romans themselves who conquered the Macedonians, but unfavorable circumstances which deprived their order of battle of a decisive advantage. When the Romans defeated the Macedonians in three battles, we were able to ascertain the undoubted reasons for each defeat on the authority of Polybius (Lib. XVII.), Plutarch (in his biography of Flaminius), Appian (in Syrian affairs), and Livy (Lib. XXXIII). In the first example, Philip II, son of Demetrius, did not put his entire phalanx into action, as he might have done. He entered the field with only the right wing. In doing so, he was victorious against the divisions of the Roman army that fought him; but the left wing, while in marching order, was attacked before it was formed and routed. Flaminius then attacked the rear of the right wing, hitherto victorious, which, being thus isolated and surrounded, was forced to surrender. - In the second, Antiochus, having entered into battle with Lucius Scipio on the plains of Magnesia, was overly confident in his cavalry, which was soon defeated; he made another mistake by compressing the front of the phalanx, building it thirty-two men deep, and not sixteen, which was the usual depth. After the defeat of the cavalry, Scipio, using the narrow front provided by the enemy, attacked him in the flank and rear, surrounded him, and forced him to lay down his arms. This is the victory won by Lucius Scipio, nicknamed Asiatic. - In the third case, when Perseus engaged in battle with Paul Aemilius, the phalanx at first repelled all attacks, but advanced carelessly and too quickly, entered into unfavorable terrain, lost its compact form and broke into small parts, and the Romans, entering the gaps, defeated her completely. See the first note to Chap. XI.
construction - Elian here hints at a dense order, or synaspismus. See previous chapter and notes.
Two cubits is equal to three feet. This is the space between the soldiers from the front to the rear, or in a row; - the distance in the line was only one cubit. See ch. XI.
Two are assigned. - Aelian and Polybius differ on this point, because the latter says that four cubits are set aside for this purpose, in other words, the pike loses four cubits of its length in the process of being exposed. Both authors can be agreed in this way, if the pike is grasped with the right hand at the very end, the loss will be only two cubits, and if the place of capture is two cubits (three feet) from the end, of course, the loss will be four. In the days of Bingham, during the war in the Netherlands, the grip right hand was done at the end of the peak. As can be seen from Polybius, as was sometimes the custom of the ancients, the blunt end of the pike was loaded with a compensation weight to balance the length of the weapon. It was called σηκωμα , secoma, libramentum, counterweight. - The paddle of the ships thus becomes more manageable. Without such a device, the oars of a warship would have to be very bulky. (Athenæus, Deipn. 1. v.)
outside the front line - How did the people stationed in the rear expose their pikes? We learn from Polybius (Lib. 17th century) that they did not bring them into an attacking position, but carried them stooping forward, and were ready to take the place of anyone who fell. The pike, remaining in this position, served, to some extent, to intercept enemy shells, as well as to cover the heads of the fighters stationed along the front.
in the back ranks longer - This clarification is too ambiguous. Pikes of sixteen cubits were found too long to be conveniently used, and therefore they were reduced to fourteen. This was a concession in the face of experience with longer pikes.

On the hands and feet of each person there are phalanges - the main, final, proximal. The final one is also called distal, a nail is placed on it. Only in the thumb there are only 2 of them, and the phalanges in it are thickened, while they are the longest at the middle finger.

Evolution of fingers and toes

In ancient times, our ancestors ate exclusively plant foods, that is, they were vegetarians. There were no meat products on their menu. In order to get their own food, they had to climb trees a lot, which made their fingers thin and long, the grasping reflex was very well developed. This led to the fact that they could perfectly cling to a tree branch, but in a horizontal projection, their mobility was minimal. Within 10-12⁰.

But one day the ancestors tried meat and realized that this food is more nutritious and, with its absorption, they have time for other things, in particular, they could consider the world that surrounds them. But since the meat had to be butchered, their fingers began to transform. The main changes at this stage in the fingers are an increase in their mobility, activity and strength. Since it was no longer necessary to climb trees so often, the toes on the feet shortened and became less mobile.

Already in prehistoric times, the phalanges of the fingers acquired almost the form that they have now. People learned to do complex actions, including drawing, drawing, dressing. All this led to the improvement of the fingers.

The constitution of the arms and legs is scientifically called articulated - that is, small bones are arranged into a single shape that has a harmonious appearance. Due to this, the fingers do not break when turning, eversion, bending, twisting.

Structural features

Even though the fingers and toes have very different appearance their structure is almost the same. Phalanges are tubular bones. Fingers consist of phalanges:

1. Medium or body - the shape of this is distinguished by a flattened upper back, small scallops on the sides. It has a nutrient hole, it goes into a canal that connects the rest of the phalanges. The end that connects to the proximal phalanx is thickened.
2. The lower one is proximal. This one connects to the bones of the metacarpus/foot.
3. Upper - distal (nail).

Causes of deformation

Rarely, but it happens that damage to the phalanges is the result of the development of pathology that occurs in the body.

Thickening can occur on the fingers, which leads to the fact that the fingers become like drumsticks, sometimes they become like claws. The reasons for this are:

• Heart defects.
• Pathology of the lungs.
• Infectious endocarditis.
• Severe diseases of the gastrointestinal tract.
• Cirrhosis.
• Other diseases.

It is impossible to start such pathologies, otherwise in the future they will cause severe damage to the body. The following symptoms indicate that the interphalangeal joints are affected:

1. Drawing pains.
2. Stiffness of movements.
3. Edema.

The joints of the fingers and toes are striking:. The first signs of gout are painful nodules on the fingers, it is dangerous because with the development of pathology, complete immobilization of the fingers can occur.

It is impossible to treat such diseases on your own, otherwise the functionality of the fingers may be completely lost, and this will affect the quality of life in general. If all the recommendations of the doctor are followed, it will be possible to return a healthy state to the joints.

Injuries of bones and joints of phalanges

Fingers, especially on the hands, suffer greatly from various kinds of injuries - these are blows with a door and a hammer. We've all dropped something heavy on our feet. Often the result of such impacts are fractures. Since the phalanges are fragile, when fractured, they form many small fragments. Sometimes bone tissue is destroyed, this will occur as a result of the development of severe pathologies that thin the bone structure - osteoporosis, osteomyelitis. If such a diagnosis is made, then it is worth protecting yourself from injuries as much as possible, because the treatment in this case will be difficult and lengthy.

There are open and closed. In the second case, there is a clear damage to the integrity of the skin, muscles, tendons. A fracture can be diagnosed by X-ray and visual examination. Based on the data obtained, it is possible to prescribe treatment and determine the scope of therapeutic measures.

A closed fracture is no less dangerous, but they often try to “endure” it, since the symptoms are not so obvious. The following signs will indicate a fracture:

1. Pain from touch.
2. Swelling of the finger.
3. Limited mobility.
4. Hematoma under the skin.
5. Unnatural deformity of the finger.

If this is found, you should consult a doctor, because the fracture itself will not go away, it must be treated.

First aid for trauma

If the finger is broken or dislocated, it is necessary to act correctly before reaching the hospital. First of all, it is desirable to determine the type of injury by the indicated signs. So, with a strong bruise, a tight bandage should be applied to fix the injured phalanx. If there is a fracture or dislocation, then immobilization consists in applying a splint, it will fix the finger in a stationary state. The splint also helps prevent the fragments from moving, which will help the finger recover faster.

If the pain after injury is severe, then you can take an analgesic. To alleviate the condition and relieve swelling, apply cold to the affected area - ice, matter soaked in water, any frozen product.

Treatment for a fracture involves the imposition of gypsum, if a dislocation occurs, then its reduction and fixation of the joint in a physiological position. In case of injury, local anesthetics are prescribed. In the process of rehabilitation, the damaged phalanx will require development, which consists in doing special exercises, the volume and type of them will be prescribed by your doctor.

Conclusion. The health and integrity of the phalanges of the fingers and joints is the key to the successful completion of all everyday and work tasks. You need to monitor their condition constantly, with characteristic symptoms or injury, contact your doctor immediately.

The next important characteristic of the thumb is the shape and structure of the second, or middle, phalanx. We will show that it is highly modified and is a decisive factor in determining temperament. This phalanx has two pronounced formations, namely: a narrowed center in the form of a waist () and its opposite, which is fuller and not so graceful ().

I called attention to the significant differences in the characters of people, expressed through these two formations. My statement regarding the thin middle part of the thumb, indicating the presence of a beat, caused big interest, and since it has been generally accepted by readers, with the exception of individual critics, here I will try to logically justify how this happens.

In the first place, the reader can already be convinced of the validity of my remarks regarding the fact that the graceful structure of the thumb indicates the presence of a more developed intellect, and its massive structure will indicate that, by its nature, this person will rather resort to brute force. From what has been said, it thus follows that the "wasp waist" of the thumb, which is an integral part of refinement, testifies to tact as a result of the development of intelligence, while a full and rough thumb will indicate that its owner will rather rely on the implementation his intention to power. In general, both individuals will act as they are told by the characteristics that nature has endowed them with.

When the first, or nail, phalanx is thick and weighted, with a shortened, flat nail, then the subject clearly cannot control his passions. All violent, even animal natures have similar thickenings at the end of the thumb; blind passion completely dominates the remnants of the mind that they may have. In such people, as a rule, the first joint is stiff, and the combination of both results in that terrible stubbornness that makes them lose their temper, committing acts of violence and crime. A flat first joint, therefore, whether short or long, indicates a calmer disposition and the ability to control one's emotions.

When the hand is hard, the natural propensity for energy and hardness, expressed through the thumb, increases; consequently, a subject with a firm, hard hand and a well-developed first joint of the thumb will be more determined in achieving his goal and in carrying out his ideas than one with a soft hand.

A subject with a soft hand tends to be impulsive and cannot rely heavily on the execution of his plans.

By studying people with a soft or protruding thumb, one striking feature of human nature can be revealed. These people are rarely distinguished by the high standards of morality that can be found in those who have a straight and hard thumb. The former, on the whole, are more like those impulsive children of nature who do not realize that they are committing unseemly acts.

So, the following rules can help in studying the most important finger of a person’s hand:

1. A long and proportional thumb indicates intellectual heredity in the genus.

2. A short, thick and rough thumb indicates the opposite ().