The concept of the universal church. bible book collector

The question of the structure of the Church has been one of the most essential questions in the life of the Church over the past hundred years (especially in Russia in the formidable 20s and 30s of the 20th century). The question was raised with all sharpness at the All-Russian Local Council 1917. The same question inevitably arises at Pan-Orthodox meetings in connection with the preparation Pan-Orthodox Council, when trying to resolve the issue of the diaspora or inter-Orthodox relations.

Anticipating the results of an attempt to discuss the topic of the structure of the Church, perhaps already in the first lines it is necessary to express the opinion that listing the expressions Universal Church,Local Church,diocese,coming, we are simply talking about the Church, about its manifestations at different levels.

Following Father Nikolai Afanasiev, I would like to repeat the words of Hieromartyr Irenaeus of Lyons: “Where the Church is, there is the Spirit of God, and where the Spirit of God is, there is the Church and the fullness of grace.” In another place, Hieromartyr Irenaeus writes: “Although the Church is scattered throughout the universe even to the ends of the earth, it received from the Apostles and their disciples the faith in the one God the Father, the Almighty, who created heaven and earth, and the sea, and all that is in them, and in one Christ Jesus, the Son of God, incarnate for our salvation, and in the Holy Spirit, through the prophets proclaiming all the dispensation of God…” .

2. The structure of the Church according to the evidence of the books of the New Testament

In the Gospels, the word ™kklhs…a is found only in two places in the Gospel of Matthew (16:18 and 18:17). More often this word appears in the Acts of the Holy Apostles. The apostle Paul uses it many times in his epistles. It is used once in the Epistle of the Apostle James, three times in the 3rd Council Epistle of the Apostle John. Quite often we find it in the book of Revelation of John.

In the meaning of the word Church there is no difference between the letters of the apostle Paul, Acts and Revelation. In all these books the word Church denotes the Church in a given city or country. In the First and Second Epistles to the Corinthians, the Apostle writes to Churches in Corinth - tН ™kklhs…v toа Qeoа tН oЬsV ™n Kor…nqJ(1 Kop l:2; 2 Kop l:1).

The church in a given locality or country is also meant in those places in the New Testament books in which this word is used in the plural. For example, it is said that the apostle Paul ordained elders to every church founded during the first journey (Acts 14:23). The Romans send greetings from all churches of Christ(see Rom. 16:16). There are many churches in Galatia (Gal. 1:2), and there are many churches in Macedonia (2 Cor. 8:1) and of course in Judea (1 Thess. 2:14).

The Church for the Apostle Paul, as well as for the Apostle John (Rev. 2-3) is the Church in Corinth, Ephesus, Smyrna. In each locality, this is not a part of the Church, but the whole Church of Christ, living in the fullness of the grace of the Holy Spirit.

At the same time, each Church is not conceived apart from other Churches. In 1 Kop l:2 we read: Church of God, which is in Corinth, sanctified in Christ Jesus, called to be saints, with all who call on the name of our Lord Jesus Christ, in every place, with them and with us. Similar to 2 Cor 1:1 Paul, by the will of God an Apostle of Jesus Christ, and Timothy brother, of the church of God, which is(oЬsV - meaning existence on the ontological plane, and not just being) in Corinth, with all the saints in all Achaia.

The relationship between the Churches was of various kinds. It was, for example, an exchange of messages. The Colossian Apostle asks that his message be conveyed to them also by the Church of Laodicea, and they themselves should read the message that was in Laodicea (Colossians 4:16). A manifestation of the connection was also the collection of money to help the Churches in Judea (2 Cor 8-9).

In the inter-church relations of apostolic times, there are no signs of the rise of one local Church over another. Undoubtedly, the Church of Jerusalem had a special meaning for the Apostles, but nowhere in the books of the New Testament do we find evidence of its predominance over others. The same is observed in relation to the Church of Antioch, which blessed Barnabas and Saul to the work to which God called them(see Acts 13:2).

Perhaps in the farewell of the Apostle Paul to the elders of Ephesus (Acts 20:17-38) one can see an indication of the special role of the Church in Ephesus. But even if this is so, then this is rather a role similar to the role of the Church of Jerusalem or Antioch. Thinking in terms of the Church "local" and "universal" in the sense of what is "whole" and what is "part" of this whole, is alien to the content of the New Testament books. The local Church in Ephesus, just like every other local Church, is the Church universal. The center of her life as the apostle Paul received from the Lord himself , is the Eucharist (see 1 Cor 11:23–29). The celebration of the Eucharist determines the place of the primate in the Church and his role in relation to other local Churches.

This understanding of the structure of the Church in apostolic times is confirmed by the New Testament terminology for designating the primates of the Church. In the books of the New Testament they are called both presbyters and bishops. An example would be that the apostle Paul invites to Milit church elders from Ephesus (Acts 20:17) and addresses them: take heed to yourselves and to all the flock, in which the Holy Spirit has made you bishops(in Russian translations usually: “ guardians”), to feed the Church of the Lord and God, which He purchased for Himself with His own blood(Acts 20:28).

An attempt to define the main features of the teaching about the Church in the books of the New Testament cannot be complete without taking into account the role of the holy Apostles. The apostles, as preachers of the Gospel and founders of the Churches, do not leave them in their care even when they move to other cities and countries. The work of the Apostle Paul shows this most vividly. The apostle writes to the Corinthians: In addition to extraneous adventures, I have a daily gathering of people, caring for all the churches(2 Cor 11:28).

For the territory of Asia Minor, it is possible even on the basis of the books of the New Testament to reproduce the continuity among the Apostles. On the basis of 1 Pet 1:1 and 2 Pet 3:15-16, it can be argued that during the imprisonment of the Apostle Paul, the Apostle Peter took over the care of the churches of Asia Minor. After the Apostle Peter, these churches were taken care of by the Apostle John the Theologian. Remarkable are the words of this Apostle in his Third Epistle: I wrote to churches; but Diotrephes, who loves to excel among them, does not accept us. Therefore, if I come, I will remind you of the deeds that he does, blaspheming us with evil words, and not content with it, and he himself does not receive brothers, and forbids those who wish, and expels from the church.(3 John 9-10). In all likelihood, this is the first clash between the apostolic care of the Church established by the Lord Jesus Christ and the church bureaucrat.

Apostolic succession makes it possible to better understand the role of the bishop as seen by the apostolic and later Fathers of the Church. In his epistle to the Philadelphians, Saint Ignatius the God-bearer writes: “For those who are God's and Jesus Christ, they are with the bishop” (ch. III). Hieromartyr Irenaeus of Lyons sees in the apostolic succession of bishops the criterion of the truth of faith (Against Heresies. Book III, ch. 3).

It is also worth recalling the words of St. Ignatius the God-bearer about the Eucharist: “So try to have one Eucharist. For there is one flesh of our Lord Jesus Christ, and one cup in the unity of His blood, one altar, as well as one bishop, with the presbytery and deacons, my co-servants, that whatever you do, you should do in God” (Philadelphians IV).

There can be no doubt that all that has been said about the bishop and the Eucharist applies to every local Church. By virtue of this identity, Saint Ignatius calls on the Roman Church to pray for the persecuted Syrian Church (ch. IX). Philadelphians are commanded to send a deacon to Antioch in Syria “to perform the service of God there, to rejoice with the believers in the general assembly and glorify the name of God<…>If you wish, it is not impossible for you for the sake of the name of God; for the nearest churches have already sent bishops and some presbyters and deacons” (To Philadelphians X).

The understanding of the structure of the Church in the period of the Apostles is no different from the understanding of the books of the New Testament. Each Church, as the Church of Christ, has the fullness of life in Christ and is therefore the Church universal.

The ecclesiology of the works of Hieromartyr Irenaeus of Lyon is not different in essence. The special significance of the Church of Rome for denouncing the wrongness of heretics is a ministry in the manner of the aforementioned help of the Churches of the Church of Antioch in Syria, which suffered from persecution. Speaking of the Church, Hieromartyr Irenaeus has in mind the Churches in different places, all over the world.

3. The structure of the Church according to the canons of the conciliar and patristic

a) First bishop, metropolis, patriarchy

The early Christian understanding of the structure of the Church was reflected in the rules of the Ecumenical and Local Councils, as well as in the rules of the Holy Fathers. This primarily applies to the Canons of the Holy Apostles. Doubts as to the date of the latest edition of the Rules do not weaken the strength of this evidence. There is no doubt that these Rules reflect practices older than those of the Councils of the fourth century.

The first canon of the holy Apostles, affirming the principle of the appointment of a bishop by two or three bishops, points simultaneously to the equality of bishops, and consequently, to the equality of their Churches. In interpreting this canon, Nicodemus, Bishop of Dalmatia and Istria, writes: “It must be so because all bishops are equal in their spiritual authority, just as the Apostles were equal in authority.”

The process of some changes in the apostolic understanding of the structure of the Church began quite early, in all likelihood at the end of the second century, in connection with the appearance of heresies and with the increase in the number of Christians. This process accelerated after the Edict of Milan, when many people came to the Church not out of conviction, but often to win favor. state power. The intervention of bishops in the affairs of other Churches and especially the activity of many chorepiscopes played a significant role.

Questions of unauthorized action of bishops, especially small localities - chorepiscops, outside their Churches were the subject of many Councils of the fourth century and in fact became the cause of many problems in the church life of our days.

Cases of bishops acting outside their own Churches occurred as early as the second and third centuries. Since the time of the Edict of Milan, the number of violations has increased to such an extent that already the Council of Ancyra in 314 decided: “It is not befitting for chorepiscopals to appoint presbyters or deacons: but lower than Bishops of other cities to others, except with the permission of the Bishop, through a letter for each diocese” (Pr. 12). The decisions of subsequent Councils testify to the continued existence of the problem of ordinations performed by chorepiscopes. Thus, the Council of Antioch (341) decided in Canon 10: “The primates, who are in small towns or villages, or the so-called chorepiscopes, knew their limits, even if they were ordained according to the order of the Bishopric; so that they manage only the churches subordinate to them, and limit their care and orders to them: so that they appoint readers, subdeacons and exorcists and be content with the production of only these ranks, and they do not dare to appoint a presbyter or deacon without the will of the Bishop who is in the city, to whom the chorepiscopal and his districts." The problem of the activities of the chorepiscopals caused much trouble for St. Basil the Great (cf. pr. 89). The 7th Ecumenical Council also dealt with it (Pr. 14).

Many rules of the Council of Carthage in 318 deal with this problem. Rule 59 describes the case of the seizure of the Church of Vekensky by the bishop of the “Rakensky village” Kreskoniy. Since the exhortations of other bishops did not have the proper effect, some of the fathers of the Council ask the entire Council for permission to appeal to the "head of the country" with a request to eliminate the offender "by the authority of the government."

The stubborn struggle for the preservation of deanery continued later. The cathedral in Sardica, assembled in 347, speaks of this with extraordinary frankness: “Hosius Bishop of the city of Corduva rivers: it is appropriate from the very foundations to eradicate not so much a bad habit as a most harmful disorder of church affairs. Let none of the Bishops be allowed to move from a small city to another city. For in this case the reason for which it is being undertaken is clear: because it has never been possible to find a single Bishop who would have tried to be transferred from a great city to a lesser city. Henceforth it is clear that such a fiery passion kindles a lot of money, and prides work harder, but they will apparently receive greater power. And so, if it pleases everyone, so much corruption will be punished more severely; I remember that such people should not have fellowship on an equal footing with the laity. All the Bishops said: It is pleasing to all” (Proverbs 1).

Against the background of the abuses presented in this rule, the desire to create an instance that could prevent such abuses in a timely manner becomes understandable. Already in the 2nd century, as witnessed even by the Hieromartyr Irenaeus of Lyons, the concept of the special significance of the apostolic sees appeared, and moreover, in big cities, which are the center of state, commercial, cultural life. In the middle of the 3rd century, the concept of the first bishop in a given region already clearly appears. The First Ecumenical Council speaks of the "ancient customs" of the power over the respective districts of the Bishops of Alexandria, Rome and Antioch (Pr. 6). It is interesting that the Bishop of Alexandria is mentioned in the first place. His rights are justified by pointing to the “ordinary” rights of the Bishop of Rome. This means that the bishops of Alexandria and Antioch have the same rights, the basis of which is essentially the same as in the case of the right and obligation of the metropolitan mentioned in Canon 4 of the First Ecumenical Council to approve the election of a new bishop. This is, first of all, a special service for the preservation of good order and the prevention of "corruption" (cf. Sard. 1) .

Canon 19 of the Fourth Ecumenical Council points out this reason for establishing the ministry of the first bishop with particular clarity. “It has come to our ears that in the regions there are no Councils of Bishops established by rules, and from this many church matters that require correction are left neglected.” Therefore, “according to the rules of the Holy Fathers”, it is necessary that the bishops of the region meet twice a year, “where the Bishop of the Metropolis appoints”.

The service of the “bishop of the metropolis” does not introduce anything new into the teaching about the Church; rather, it can be said that the opposite is true: it is placed at the service of the Church of the “region” for the joint solution of vital issues. The bishop of the metropolis himself does not solve these issues. It is not difficult to see here the same behavior we read about in Col 4:16.

The same can be said about the ministry of exarchs that appeared in the fourth century (Carth. 48; IV Ecum. 17), metropolitans, and a little later the ministry of patriarchs appeared (Double, 861, Rights 15). In this canon we read: “what is determined about presbyters and bishops and metropolitans, that very thing and above all befits the patriarchs. Therefore, if any presbyter, or bishop, or metropolitan, dares to depart from communion with his patriarch, and will not exalt his name, according to a certain and established order, in divine sacrament, but before the conciliar announcement and complete condemnation of him, he will cause a schism: such the holy council determined to be completely alien to any priesthood, if only he would be convicted of this iniquity” ... but if they separated “for the sake of some heresy” and did this before the conciliar condemnation, “not only are they not subject to the penance prescribed by the rules, but they are also worthy of the honor befitting the Orthodox.” The Fathers of the Double Synod obviously took into account the experience of the then great Patriarchate of Constantinople, but at the same time preserved the apostolic teaching about the local Church. The responsibility of the bishop and even the presbyter for the Church entrusted to them is not removed by anyone or in any way. The basis of this doctrine of the Church is undoubtedly the vision of the Church as a Eucharistic Assembly.

b) Parishes

The service of primacy was not perceived as a violation of the foundations of the apostolic teaching about the Church as a Eucharistic gathering of those who profess faith in the Savior, the Lord Jesus Christ. In the ancient Church, primacy could also be the result of the expansion of the Local Church. The 64th Canon of the Council of Carthage (318) can be a witness to such a process. According to this rule, “the people in parishes dependent on bishops and never having a special bishop” cannot receive “their rulers” except “with the consent of the bishop to whom they are first subject.” The “Ancient Bishop” became the leader in relation to the new Church. But the new Church was guided by the same rules as the "ancient". Its bishop was one of the bishops of the metropolis. Sometimes even, as happened with the Church of Constantinople, the grown Church towered over its ancient metropolis.

The sixth canon of the Council of Sardica (347) also decides: “Let it not be allowed to appoint a Bishop in any village or small city, for which there is one and only presbyter.” The justification for such a decision is noteworthy: “For there is no need to appoint Bishops there, let not the name of the Bishop and the power be humiliated. But Bishops(plural!) regions should, as I said above, Bishops be placed in those cities in which there were Bishops before.

Here we can see both the conciliar appointment of a bishop and the desire to preserve the existing local Churches. However, restrictions on the appointment of a bishop are not equivalent to the elimination of the possibility of the emergence of new Churches. The same rule ends with the decree: “But if a certain city springs up, which has grown so much by many people, that he will be deemed worthy to have a Bishop: let him receive. Do they all agree? Everyone answered: they agree.

Of course, the new Church is the same Church, possessing the fullness of the grace of God, like other older Churches. Any other opinion would be sheer absurdity, it would mean limiting the action of the Holy Spirit by the boundaries of the time of the emergence of a given Church.

The emergence of parishes, that is, churches without bishops, is connected - as the cited 6th Canon of the Council of Sardis testifies - with the desire to protect the dignity of the bishop. Hidden under this explanation is also a desire to counteract the disturbances arising from the many bishops of small areas. But even in this case, the basic understanding of the Church as the Church in a given locality, constituting one Eucharistic assembly, although for practical reasons divided into assemblies in small settlements around a large city, remains inviolable. In addition, the reason could also be the impossibility of gathering all believers in one place because of their large number. In this case, the example of the Church of Alexandria is indicative.

4. Conclusion

This brief review of the teaching about the Church, embodied in the canons of the Ecumenical and Local Councils, gives reason to assert that their various decisions, caused by the changing historical situation, cannot be considered as significant changes in the apostolic teaching about the Church. The basic structure of the Church is the local Church, headed by a bishop. The fullness of the grace of God, manifested in the preaching of the Gospel, in the Holy Sacraments, in the holiness of the members of the Church, and especially in the central event of the life of the Church, that is, in the Eucharist, is its main sign. It is possible only when it remains in line with the outpouring of the Holy Spirit from the day of Pentecost throughout all ages.

To the essence of the life of the local Church thus understood belongs its connection with other local Churches. The forms and names of this connection can be different: region, district, metropolis, patriarchy and others, depending on the living conditions.

In this regard, we should recall the famous resolution of St. Tikhon, the Holy Synod and the Supreme Church Council of November 20, 1920 on the situation as a result of hostilities and the movement of borders, when communication with the canonical center is impossible.

“2. In the event that the diocese, as a result of the movement of the front, a change in the state border, etc., finds itself out of any communication with the Supreme Church Administration, or the Supreme Church Administration itself ceases its activities for some reason, the diocesan bishop immediately enters into communication with the bishops of neighboring dioceses in order to organize the highest instance of ecclesiastical authority for several dioceses that are in the same conditions (whether in the form of the Provisional Higher Church Government or the Metropolitan District, or otherwise).

In this paragraph of the resolution there is also the terminology of the synodal times (V.Ts.U), but at the same time a return to ancient church practice (metropolitan district). First of all, the decree is imbued with the spirit of ancient Christian ecclesiology.

"four. If it is impossible to establish relations with the hierarchs of neighboring dioceses and until the organization of the Supreme Church Authority, the diocesan hierarch assumes all the full power granted to him by the church canons…”.

In a terrible time of persecution of the Church, it became necessary to return to its primitive, apostolic understanding and to its basic structure.

"5. In the event that the state of affairs specified in par. 2 and 4, will take on a long-term or even permanent character, especially if it is impossible for the bishop to use the assistance of the diocesan administration, the most appropriate (in the sense of establishing church order) measure seems to be the division of the diocese into several local dioceses. What is the bishop for?

a) grants to his Grace his vicars, who now, according to the Order, enjoy the rights of semi-independent, all the rights of diocesan bishops, with the organization of administration under them, in relation to local conditions and opportunities.

b) establishes, by conciliar judgment with other bishops of the diocese, if possible in all significant cities of his diocese, new episcopal sees with the rights of semi-independent or independent.

c) the diocese, divided in the manner indicated in paragraph 5, forms an ecclesiastical district headed by the bishop of the main diocesan city, which enters into the management of local church affairs, in accordance with the canons.

"ten. All measures taken on the ground, in accordance with these instructions, subsequently, in the event of the restoration of the central church authority, must be submitted for approval by the latter.

Orthodox teaching about the Church rejects the chaotic state of inter-church relations, when the governing principle disappears, manifested in the ministry of the primate of the neighboring local Churches (metropolitan, archbishop, patriarch). It also rejects any pyramidal construction of the structure of the Church as leading to a denial of the reality of the presence of the Savior in His Church.

The pyramidal construction of the structure of the Church inevitably leads to the construction of a centralized structure of the church organization, which needs a bureaucratic administration with all its negative consequences. Such an organization is easily vulnerable and tends to deny the freedom of the children of God. The triumph of such an understanding of the structure of the Church is beautifully shown by F. Dostoevsky in the legend of the Grand Inquisitor.

The Church of Christ is the place of man's salvation. Therefore, soteriology and anthropology are needed to test ecclesiology. The local Church for the Apostle Paul is also universal, embracing the entire creation of God, the world of heaven and earth. Made known through the Church to principalities and authorities (ta‹j ўrca‹j kaЂ ta‹j ™xous…aij) in heaven the manifold wisdom of God(Eph 3:10). In the Church, the Savior Himself set some as apostles, others as prophets, others as evangelists, others as shepherds and teachers, for the perfection of the saints, for the work of ministry, for the building up of the body of Christ, until we all come into the unity of faith and the knowledge of the Son of God, into a perfect man, to the measure of the full stature of Christ(Eph 4:11-13).

Rules of the Orthodox Church with interpretations of Nicodemus Bishop of Dalmatia-Istria. T. 1. St. Petersburg, 1911. S. 45.

Councils are called ecumenical, convened on behalf of the whole Church to resolve questions about the truths of the dogma and recognized by the whole Church as sources of its dogmatic Tradition and canon law. There were seven such Councils:

The 1st Ecumenical (I Nicene) Council (325) was convened by St. imp. Constantine the Great to condemn the heresy of the Alexandrian presbyter Arius, who taught that the Son of God is only the highest creation of the Father and is called the Son not in essence, but by adoption. The 318 bishops of the Council condemned this teaching as heresy and affirmed the truth about the consubstantiality of the Son with the Father and His pre-eternal birth. They also compiled the first seven articles of the Creed and recorded the privileges of the bishops of the four major metropolitanates: Rome, Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem (canons 6 and 7).

The II Ecumenical (I Constantinople) Council (381) completed the formation of the Trinitarian dogma. He was called by St. imp. Theodosius the Great for the final condemnation of various followers of Arius, including the Macedonian Doukhobors, who rejected the Divinity of the Holy Spirit, considering Him to be the creation of the Son. 150 eastern bishops affirmed the truth about the consubstantiality of the Holy Spirit "proceeding from the Father" with the Father and the Son, made up the five remaining members of the Creed and recorded the advantage of the Bishop of Constantinople as the second in honor after Rome - "because this city is the second Rome" (3- th canon).

The III Ecumenical (I Ephesus) Council (431) opened the era of Christological disputes (about the Person of Jesus Christ). It was convened to condemn the heresy of the Bishop of Constantinople Nestorius, who taught that the Blessed Virgin Mary gave birth to a simple man Christ, with whom God subsequently united morally and graciously dwelt in Him, as in a temple. Thus the divine and human natures in Christ remained separate. The 200 bishops of the Council affirmed the truth that both natures in Christ are united into one God-human Person (Hypostasis).

The IV Ecumenical (Chalcedon) Council (451) was convened to condemn the heresy of Archimandrite Eutyches of Constantinople, who, denying Nestorianism, fell into the opposite extreme and began to teach about the complete merging of the Divine and human nature in Christ. At the same time, the Divinity inevitably devoured humanity (the so-called Monophysitism), 630 bishops of the Council affirmed the antinomic truth that the two natures in Christ are united "unmistakably and invariably" (against Eutychius), "inseparably and inseparably" (against Nestorius). The canons of the Council finally fixed the so-called. "Pentarchy" - the ratio of the five patriarchates.

The V-th Ecumenical (II Constantinople) Council (553) was convened by St. emperor Justinian I to pacify the Monophysite turmoil that arose after the Council of Chalcedon. The Monophysites accused the adherents of the Council of Chalcedon of hidden Nestorianism and in support of this they referred to three Syrian bishops (Theodore of Mopsuet, Theodoret of Cyrus and Iva of Edessa), in whose writings Nestorian opinions really sounded. In order to make it easier for the Monophysites to join Orthodoxy, the Council condemned the errors of the three teachers ("three heads"), as well as the errors of Origen.

The VI Ecumenical (III Constantinople) Council (680-681; 692) was convened to condemn the heresy of the Monothelites, who, although they recognized two natures in Jesus Christ, united them by one Divine will. The Council of 170 Bishops affirmed the truth that Jesus Christ, as true God and true Man, has two wills, but his human will is not opposed, but submissive to the Divine. Thus, the revelation of the Christological dogma was completed.

The direct continuation of this Council was the so-called. The Trulli Council, convened 11 years later in the Trulli chambers of the royal palace to approve the established canonical code. He is also called the "Fifth-Sixth", implying that he canonically completed the acts of the Vth and VIth Ecumenical Councils.

The 7th Ecumenical (II Nicaean) Council (787) was convened by Empress Irina to condemn the so-called. iconoclastic heresy - the last imperial heresy, which rejected icon veneration as idolatry. The Council revealed the dogmatic essence of the icon and approved the obligatory nature of icon veneration.

Note. The Ecumenical Orthodox Church has stopped at the seven Ecumenical Councils and confesses Itself as the Church of the seven Ecumenical Councils. so-called. The Ancient Orthodox (or Oriental Orthodox) Churches stopped at the first three Ecumenical Councils, not accepting the IVth, Chalcedonian (the so-called non-Chalcedonites). The Western Roman Catholic Church continues its dogmatic development and already has 21 Councils (moreover, the last 14 Councils are also called Ecumenical). Protestant denominations do not recognize Ecumenical Councils at all.

The division into "East" and "West" is rather conditional. However, it is convenient for showing a schematic history of Christianity. On the right side of the diagram

• Eastern Christianity, i.e. predominantly Orthodoxy. On the left side
• Western Christianity, i.e. Roman Catholicism and Protestant denominations.

EASTERN CHRISTIANITY

Eastern Churches:

1. Churches of Universal Orthodoxy:

Universal Orthodoxy is a family of local Churches that have the same dogmas, the original canonical device recognize each other's sacraments and are in fellowship. Theoretically, all Churches of Ecumenical Orthodoxy are equal, although in fact the Russian Orthodox Church claims to be leading role("Moscow is the third Rome"), and the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople jealously observes its honorary "primacy of honor." But the unity of Orthodoxy is not of a monarchical, but rather of a Eucharistic nature, for it is based on the principle of catholicity. Each Church has the fullness of catholicity, i.e. with all the fullness of grace-filled life, given through the true Eucharist and other sacraments. Thus, the empirical plurality of the Churches does not contradict the dogmatic unity that we profess in Article IX of the Creed. Empirically, Ecumenical Orthodoxy consists of 15 autocephalous and several autonomous Churches. We list them in the traditional order.

The Orthodox Church of Constantinople, according to legend, was founded by St. Andrew the First-Called, who c. 60 ordained his disciple St. Stakhios the first bishop of the city of Byzantium. B. 330 St. imp. Constantine the Great founded the new capital of the Roman Empire, Constantinople, on the site of Byzantium. Since 381 - an autocephalous archdiocese, since 451 - a Patriarchate, the center of the so-called. "imperial heresies", fought for primacy with the Alexandrian Church, and then with Rome itself. In 1054, relations with the Roman Church were finally severed and only in 1965 were partially restored. Since 1453, the Patriarchate of Constantinople has existed on the territory of Muslim Turkey, where it has only 6 dioceses, 10 monasteries and 30 theological schools. However, its jurisdiction extends beyond the borders of the Turkish state and embraces very significant ecclesiastical areas: Athos, the Finnish Autonomous Church, the semi-autonomous Cretan Church, the episcopal sees in Western Europe, America, Asia and Australia (total 234 foreign dioceses). Head of the Church since 1991 Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew.

The Alexandrian Orthodox Church is said to have been founded c. 67 by the apostle and evangelist Mark in the capital of Sev.Egypt - Alexandria. Since 451 - Patriarchy, the third in importance after Rome and Constantinople. However, already at the end of V - beginning. 6th century The Alexandrian Church was greatly weakened by the Monophysite turmoil. In the 7th century It finally fell into decay due to the Arab invasion, and at the beginning of the 16th century. was conquered by the Turks and until recently was in strong church dependence on Constantinople. Currently there are only approx. 30 thousand believers, who are united in 5 Egyptian and 9 African dioceses. The total number of temples and prayer houses is approx. 150. Divine services are performed in ancient Greek and Arabic. The Church is currently headed by His Beatitude Parthenius III, Pope and Patriarch of Alexandria.

The Antiochian Orthodox Church is said to have been founded c. 37 in Antioch by the apostles Paul and Barnabas. Since 451 - Patriarchate. At the end of V - beginning. 6th century weakened by the Monophysite turmoil. Since 637, it fell under the rule of the Arabs, and at the beginning of the 16th century. captured by the Turks and fell into disrepair. Until now - one of the poorest Churches, although now it has 22 dioceses and approx. 400 temples (including in America). Divine services are performed in ancient Greek and Arabic. It is headed by His Beatitude Ignatius IV, Patriarch of Antioch, whose residence is in Damascus.

The Jerusalem Orthodox Church is the oldest of the Orthodox Churches. the first bishop of which is considered the apostle James, brother of the Lord († c. 63). After the Jewish War of 66-70. was ruined and lost its primacy to Rome. From the 4th century gradually recovers. In the 7th century falls into disrepair due to the Arab invasion. Now it consists of two metropolias and one archdiocese (the ancient Sinai Church), has 23 temples and 27 monasteries, of which the largest is the monastery of the Holy Sepulcher. In Jerusalem itself, there are no more than 8 thousand Orthodox believers. The service is performed in Greek and Arabic. At present, the head of the Church is His Beatitude Diodorus I, Patriarch of Jerusalem.

Russian Orthodox Church - founded in 988 under St. Prince Vladimir I as metropolia Church of Constantinople with the center in Kyiv. After the Tatar-Mongol invasion, the department of the metropolis was moved to Vladimir in 1299, and to Moscow in 1325. From 1448 - autocephaly (1st independent metropolitan - St. Jonah). After the fall of Byzantium (1453) and still claims to be the "third Rome". From 1589 - Patriarchate (1st Patriarch - St. Job). Since 1667 greatly weakened by the Old Believer schism, and then by Peter the Great's reforms: the Patriarchate was abolished (Abolition of the Patriarchate) - the so-called. Holy Synod, appointed by the emperor. Councils were not allowed.

After the fall of the autocracy, the Local Council of 1917-18 was convened, which returned the canonical leadership of the Church (St. Patriarch Tikhon). At the same time, the Church experienced severe persecution from the Soviet authorities and underwent a series of schisms (the largest of which, the "Karlovatsky" ("Karlovtsy"), still exists). In the 1930s she was on the brink of extinction. Only since 1943 did its slow revival as a Patriarchate begin. At the Local Council of 1971, reconciliation with the Old Believers took place. In the 1980s The Russian Church already had 76 dioceses and 18 monasteries. But since 1990, the unity of the Patriarchate has been attacked by nationalist forces (especially in Ukraine). Today the Russian Church is going through a difficult and responsible period of adaptation to post-socialist reality. Leads it holy Cyril Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia.

The Serbian Orthodox Church was founded at the end of the 9th century. Since 1219 - autocephaly. Since 1346 - the first (so-called Pech) Patriarchate. In the XIV century. fell under the yoke of the Turks and became dependent on the Church of the Patriarchate of Constantinople. In 1557 it gained independence, but after two centuries it was again subordinate to Constantinople. Only in 1879 did it again become autocephalous.

On the territory of neighboring Macedonia, Christianity has been known since the time of ap. Paul. From the 4th to the 6th century The Macedonian Church alternately depended either on Rome or on Constantinople. At the end of IX - beginning. 11th century had the status of autocephaly (with its center in Ohrid) and, possibly, participated in the Baptism of Russia.

Montenegro had a special ecclesiastical fate, and the so-called. Bukovinian Metropolis.

Combining all these Orthodox regions into a single Serbian Church took place in 1919. In 1920, the Serbian Patriarchate was restored. The fascist occupation and the subsequent socialist period caused significant damage to the Serbian Church. Nationalist tendencies intensified. In 1967, Macedonia seceded into a self-made autocephaly (under the leadership of the Archbishop of Ohrid and Macedonia). The Serbian Church is currently in a state of crisis. It is headed by Patriarch Pavel.

Romanian Orthodox Church. The first dioceses in this territory are known from the 4th century. For a long time they were in church dependence on the Patriarchate of Constantinople. From the 14th century under the rule of the Turks. In the first half of the XIX century. temporarily attached to the Russian Church. In 1865 (3 years after the formation of the Romanian state), the local Church declared itself autocephalous, but the Ecumenical Patriarchate recognized this only in 1885. In 1919. the Romanian Patriarchate was formed, which now consists of 13 dioceses, has 17 million believers and is headed by the Patriarch of All Romania, His Beatitude Theoktist.

The Bulgarian Orthodox Church was founded in 865 under St. prince Boris. Since 870 - an autonomous Church within the framework of the Patriarchate of Constantinople. Since 927 - an autocephalous archdiocese with its center in Ohrid. This ecclesiastical independence was constantly challenged by Byzantium. From the 14th century Bulgaria was under the rule of the Turks and again became dependent on Constantinople. After a stubborn struggle in 1872, the Bulgarian autocephaly was arbitrarily restored, declared schismatic by the Ecumenical Patriarchate. Only in 1945 the schism was abolished, and in 1953 the Bulgarian Church became a Patriarchate. Now She is in a state of split and crisis. It is headed by the Patriarch of Bulgaria, His Holiness Maxim.

The Georgian Orthodox Church was founded at the beginning of the 4th century. the labors of St. Equal-to-the-Apostles Nina († c. 335). Initially, it was subordinate to the Patriarchate of Antioch. Since 487 - an autocephalous Church with a center in Mtskheta (the residence of the Supreme Catholicos). Under the Sassanids (VI - VII centuries) it withstood the struggle with the Persian fire-worshippers, and during the Turkish conquests (XVI - XVIII centuries) - with Islam. This exhausting struggle led to the decline of Georgian Orthodoxy. The consequence of the difficult political situation of the country was its accession to the Russian Empire (1783). The Georgian Church came under the jurisdiction of the Holy Synod as an exarchate, and the title of Catholicos was abolished. Exarchs, on the other hand, were appointed from Russians, which in 1918 was the reason for the ecclesiastical rupture with Russia. However, in 1943 the Moscow Patriarchate recognized autocephaly Georgian Church as an independent patriarchy. Now the Church consists of 15 dioceses, uniting approx. 300 communities. It is headed by the Catholicos - Patriarch of All Georgia Ilia II.

The Cypriot Orthodox Church, according to legend, was founded by St. Barnabas in 47. Initially - the diocese of the Church of Antioch. From 431 - autocephalous archdiocese. In the VI century. fell under the Arab yoke, from which it freed itself only in 965. However, in 1091 the island of Cyprus was captured by the crusaders, from 1489 to 1571 it belonged to Venice, from 1571 to the Turks, from 1878 to the British. Only in 1960 did Cyprus achieve independence and proclaim itself a republic, with Archbishop Makarios (1959-1977) as its president. Now Cypriot Church consists of one archdiocese and 5 metropolises, has more than 500 churches and 9 monasteries. It is headed by Archbishop Chrysostomos.

Helladic (Greek) Orthodox Church. Christianity appeared on its territory under ap. Pavel. From the 4th century Greek episcopal sees were part of either the Roman or the Constantinople Church. In 1453, Greece was conquered by the Turks and entered the jurisdiction of the Patriarchate of Constantinople. Only in 1830 Greece achieved independence and began the struggle for autocephaly, which it received in 1850. But, having barely freed itself from Constantinople, it became dependent on the king. It was not until the Constitution of 1975 that the Church was finally separated from the state. It was headed by the Archbishop of Athens and all Hellas, His Beatitude Seraphim.

At the same time (in the 1960s), the so-called Greek Orthodox Church broke away from the Greek Orthodox Church. True Orthodox Church of Greece (old style), consisting of 15 dioceses (including in the USA and North Africa), headed by Metropolitan Cyprian of Philia.

officially recognized Greek Church- one of the largest. It consists of 1 archdiocese and 77 metropolitanates, has 200 monasteries and has approx. 8 million Orthodox believers (out of 9.6 million of the total population of Greece).

Albanian Orthodox Church. The first Christian communities in this territory have been known since the 3rd century, and the first episcopal see was established in the 10th century. Soon a metropolis was formed, which is under the jurisdiction of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church, and from the second half of the 18th century. - under the jurisdiction of the Patriarchate of Constantinople. In 1922, Albania gained independence and gained autocephaly. The communist regime completely destroyed the small Albanian Church, but now it has risen from the dead. It is headed by His Beatitude Archbishop Anastassy.

The Polish Orthodox Church was founded in 966 under Prince Mieszko I. After the division of the Churches, the Orthodox dominated mainly in the eastern regions, where in 1235 they established an episcopal see in the city of Kholm (later in Przemysl). But in 1385, Prince Jagiello declared his state Catholic, which was the reason for the conversion of the Orthodox to Catholicism. In 1596, the Orthodox bishops, headed by Metropolitan Michael (Rogoza) of Kiev, accepted the jurisdiction of the Pope at the Brest Council. This so-called. The Union of Brest lasted until 1875, when, after the partition of Poland, the Orthodox Kholm diocese was restored. In 1918, Poland again became an independent Catholic state, and the Orthodox Church, separating itself into a self-made autocephaly, degraded more and more. Only in 1948, on the initiative of the Moscow Patriarchate, was the Polish Autocephaly recognized and its position strengthened. Today this Church has no more than 1 million believers (about 300 parishes); It is headed by the Metropolitan of Warsaw and all Poland, His Beatitude Basil.

The Czechoslovak Orthodox Church was founded on the territory of the Czech Republic (in Moravia) in 863 by the works of Sts. Equal-to-the-Apostles Cyril and Methodius. However, after the death of the Thessalonica brothers, the initiative passed to the supporters of the Latin rite. Orthodoxy survived only within the Mukachevo diocese. But in 1649 this diocese also entered into union with the Catholic Church. Only in 1920, thanks to the Serbian initiative in the Carpathians, Orthodox parishes Serbian jurisdiction. After World War II, they turned to the Moscow Patriarchate for help and were organized first into an exarchate, and in 1951 into the Autocephalous Czechoslovak Orthodox Church. It has only 200 thousand believers and approx. 200 parishes united in 4 dioceses. It is headed by the Metropolitan of Prague and all Czechoslovakia Dorotheos.

American Orthodox Church. Exactly 200 years ago, in 1794, the monks of the Valaam Monastery of the Transfiguration of the Savior created the first Orthodox mission in America. The American Orthodox consider the Reverend Herman of Alaska († 1837) to be their apostle. Under Archbishop Tikhon (later St. Patriarch), the See of the Aleutian Diocese was transferred from San Francisco to New York. In the very first years of Soviet power, contacts with her turned out to be very difficult. The American hierarchs were suspected of having links with the GPU, and discord intensified. In this regard, in 1971 the Moscow Patriarchate granted autocephaly to the American Church. This decision came into conflict with the interests of the Ecumenical Patriarchate, which already had 2 million American Orthodox in its jurisdiction. Therefore, the American Autocephaly has not yet been recognized by Constantinople, but exists de facto and has more than 500 parishes united in 12 dioceses, 8 monasteries, 3 seminaries, an Academy, etc. The service is held in English. The Church is headed by His Beatitude Theodosius, Metropolitan of All America and Canada.

2. Ancient Oriental Churches:

This is mainly the so-called. "non-Chalcedonites", i.e. The Eastern Churches, for one reason or another, did not accept the Chalcedon (IV Ecumenical) Council. According to their origin, they are divided into "Monophysite" and "Nestorian", although they have gone very far from these ancient heresies.

The Armenian Apostolic Church, according to legend, goes back to App. Thaddeus and Bartholomew. Historically formed in the 320s. through the labors of St. Gregory the Illuminator († 335), whose son and successor, Aristakes, was a participant in the First Ecumenical Council. In its dogma, it is based on the decrees of the first three Ecumenical Councils and adheres to the Christology of St. Cyril of Alexandria (the so-called Miaphysitism). She did not participate in the IV Ecumenical Council for objective reasons and did not recognize its decisions (distorted by translation). In the period from 491 to 536, it finally separated from the unity of the Universal Church. It has seven sacraments, honors the Mother of God, icons, etc. It currently has 5 dioceses within Armenia and several others in America, Asia, Europe and Australia. Until 1994, it was headed by the Supreme Patriarch - the Catholicos of All Armenians, His Holiness Vazgen I (the 130th Catholicos); his residence is in Etchmiadzin.

Coptic Orthodox Church, from the family of the so-called. "Monophysite" Churches, formed in the period from 536 to 580 among the Egyptian Copts. National isolation, due to hatred of Byzantium, facilitated its conquest by the Arabs. Forced Islamization led to a significant decline. As a result of this, the Coptic Patriarch Kirill IV († 1860) began negotiations with His Grace Porfiry (Uspensky) about reunification with Orthodoxy, but was poisoned, and his opponents entered into union with Rome (1898). At present, it has actually united with the Alexandrian Orthodox Church of Patriarch Parthenius. It is in Eucharistic communion with the Armenian and Syrian Churches. Consists of 400 communities. Worship in Arabic and Coptic. Osmosis. Liturgies of Basil the Great, Gregory the Theologian and Cyril of Alexandria. It is headed by the Pope of Alexandria and Patriarch His Holiness Shenouda III.

Ethiopian (Abyssinian) Orthodox Church - until 1959 part of the Coptic Orthodox Church, and then - autocephaly. Under the reign of Sisinia (1607-1632), it entered into a union with Rome, but the next, King Basil (1632-1667), expelled the Catholics from Ethiopia. Divine services are distinguished by an extraordinary richness of texts, hymns and an abundance of holidays. There are many desert monasteries. Currently, this Church is headed by the Patriarch of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, His Holiness Abuna Merkarios (residence in Addis Ababa).

The Syro-Jacobite Orthodox Church, from the family of "Monophysite" Churches, was formed in the 540s. Syrian Monophysite Bishop Jacob Baradei. Having withstood a fierce struggle with the empire, the Jacobites in 610 surrendered themselves to the dominion of the advancing Persians. In 630, at imp. Heraclius, partially adopted Monothelitism. At the beginning of the 8th century, fleeing from the Arabs, they fled to Egypt and the North-West. Africa. They also settled eastward throughout Mesopotamia all the way to India, where in 1665 they entered into union with the Malabar Christians. Currently, this Church is headed by the Patriarch of Antioch and All the East, His Holiness Mar Ignatius Zakke I Ivas (residence in Damascus).

The Malabar Orthodox Church, according to legend, goes back to the communities founded in India by St. Foma on the so-called. Malabar coast. In the 5th century organizationally belonged to the Nestorian Patriarchate "Seleucia-Ctesiphon", whose influence in Arabia and North. India was dominant. Nevertheless, the "Christians of the Apostle Thomas" did not become Nestorians. After the defeat of the Sev. India Tamerlane in con. XIV century, the Malabar coast was discovered by the Portuguese (1489 Vasco da Gama) and forced latinization began (Cathedral in Diamper, 1599). This led to a schism in 1653, when the largest part of the Malabar Christians separated from the union imposed on them by the Spaniards and joined the Syrian-Jacobite Church, which dominated the north (1665). This united Church is now called the Syrian Orthodox Church of India. It is headed by the Patriarch-Catholicos of the East, His Holiness Basil Mar Thomas Matthew I (residence in Kottayam).

Syro-Persian (Assyrian) Church, from the so-called. "Nestorian"; It was formed in 484 on the basis of the Persian ("Chaldean") Church and the Patriarchate "Seleucia-Ctesiphon" (modern Baghdad). Spread throughout Arabia, Sev. India and Center. Asia (up to China inclusive) among the Turkic and Mongolian peoples. In the VII-XI centuries. - the largest area Christian church. In the XIV century. almost completely destroyed by Tamerlane. Only in Kurdistan survived approx. 1 million believers under the leadership of the Patriarch with residence in Mosul. In 1898, several thousand Aisors (Assyrian Christians) from Turkey, led by Archbishop Mar Jonah of Urmia, entered the Russian Orthodox Church through repentance. There are currently approx. 80 Assyrian communities (in Syria, Iraq, Iran, Lebanon, India, USA and Canada), which are governed by 7 bishops. This Church is headed by the Catholicos-Patriarch of the Assyrian Church of the East, His Holiness Mar Dinhi IV (residence in Chicago).

The Maronite Church is the only one with a Monothelite Christology. It was formed at the end of the 7th century, when the Byzantine government resettled the Isaurian Monothelite tribe from Taurus to Lebanon. The center of the new Church was the monastery of St. Maron, founded in the 4th century. near Apamea. The church existed among the Lebanese highlanders until the era of the Crusades. In 1182, the Maronite patriarch concluded a union with Rome and received the title of cardinal. The rest of the communities joined the union in 1215. Therefore, the dogma of the Maronites is close to Catholic, but the priests do not observe celibacy. Services are held in Middle Assyrian.

Donicean period (I - early IV century)

This early period of church history covers three centuries before the Nicene (I Ecumenical) Council.

The first century is usually called the Apostolic. According to legend, for 12 years after Pentecost, the apostles remained in the vicinity of Jerusalem, and then went on a worldwide sermon. Mission App. Paul and Barnabas showed that in order to preach successfully, converted Gentiles should not be bound by outdated Jewish law. The Apostolic Council in 49 in Jerusalem approved this practice. But not everyone agreed with his decision. so-called. "Jewish" formed a schism between the Ebionites and Nazirites. These first decades are sometimes referred to as the time of "Judeo-Christianity", when the New Testament Church still existed within the Old Testament, Christians attended the Temple in Jerusalem, and so on. Jewish War 66-70 AD put an end to this symbiosis. It began with an uprising of Jerusalem nationalists against Roman power. Nero sent the provinces of Vespasian and Titus to pacify. As a result, Jerusalem was completely destroyed, and the temple was burned. The Christians, warned by a revelation, left the doomed city in advance. So there was a final break between Christianity and Judaism.

After the destruction of Jerusalem, the significance of the church center passes to the capital of the empire - Rome, consecrated by the martyrdom of App. Peter and Paul. From the reign of Nero begins a period of persecution. The last apostle, John the Evangelist, dies c. 100, and with it the apostolic age ends.

"Apostolic Men":

II and III centuries. - time of early Christianity. It opens with a group of so-called. "Apostolic men", i.e. early Christian writers who were disciples of the apostles themselves. The diagram shows two of them:

ssmch. Ignatius the God-bearer, 2nd Bishop of Antioch, sentenced to death in the persecution of imp. Trajan. Convoyed to Rome to be torn apart by lions in the arena of the Colosseum. Along the way, he wrote 7 epistles to local churches. Commemorated December 20th.

ssmch. Polycarp of Smyrna - a student of St. John the Evangelist, 2nd Bishop of Smyrna. Witness of the martyrdom of St. Ignatius. He himself was burned at the stake in the persecution of imp. Marcus Aurelius in 156 (canonical date † 167). Commemorated February 23rd.

"Apologetics"

Apostolic men were a transitional group from the apostles themselves to the so-called. apologists. Apology (Greek "justification") is a word about intercession directed to persecuting emperors. Justifying Christianity as a just and reasonable religion, the apologists voluntarily or involuntarily translated the truths of faith into the language of reason, and thus Christian theology was born. The first of these apologists-theologians was Martyr. Justin The Philosopher of Samaria, a Platonic philosopher, after his conversion (c. 133) arrived in Rome, where he founded a theological school to combat Gnostic heretics. Wrote 3 apologies. Died in the persecution of imp. Marcus Aurelius in 166. Commemorated June 1.

The Council of Laodicea in 170 was the first major Council after the apostolic age. It decided the question of the day of the celebration of Easter.

OK. In 179, the African Stoic philosopher Panten transformed the Alexandrian catechumenical school (according to legend, founded by ap and ev. Mark) into a theological school. Here was born the most ancient tradition of Alexandrian theology (Origen, St. Athanasius the Great, St. Cyril of Alexandria, etc.). At the origins of this tradition was -

Clement of Alexandria († 215) - student of Panten, author of the famous trilogy "Protreptik" - "Teacher" - "Stromaty". Clement developed the trend of St. Justin the Philosopher to a harmonious combination of faith and reason, but in general his theology is more eclectic than systematic. The first attempt at systematization was made by his student -

Origen of Alexandria († 253), encyclopedically educated and very prolific author, the greatest exegete ("Hexapla"), dogmatist ("On the Beginnings") and apologist ("Against Celsus"). But in his attempt to harmonize Christianity with the highest achievements of Hellenic thought, he allowed a bias towards Neoplatonism and theological opinions, subsequently rejected by the Church.

Saint Dionysius, Bishop of Alexandria († 265) - disciple of Origen, c. 232 led the Alexandrian school. The author of the first Paschalia, known for his extensive correspondence, as well as polemics with the heretics of the monarchists. Commemorated October 5th.

St. Gregory the Wonderworker († 270) is a disciple of Origen, an outstanding ascetic and miracle worker, who prayerfully acquired the God-revealed Creed. Subsequently - Bishop of Neocaesarea, a deep preacher and fighter against the heresy of Paul of Samosata. Commemorated November 17th.

Eastern heresies of this period:

Montanism is a heresy of uncontrolled ecstatic prophecy that appeared in Phrygia in the middle of the second century. and named for its founder, Montanus, a former priest of Cybella, a fanatical rigorist and apocalyptic.

Manichaeism is a dualistic heresy that borrowed from Persian Zoroastrianism the fundamental equality of good and evil principles (hidden ditheism).

Paul of Samosata, on the contrary, taught that God is the only one, and this is God the Father, and Jesus Christ is only a man (the so-called monarchianism).

The ante-Nicean period ended with the largest "Diocletian persecution" in the history of Christianity (302-311), the purpose of which was the complete destruction of the Church. But, as always happens, the persecution only contributed to the establishment and spread of Christianity.

Christianization of Armenia and Georgia. It is the beginning of the Diocletian persecution (302) that makes St. the educator Nina, together with the community of girlish ascetics, to flee to Armenia. When persecution overtakes them there too, she hides in Iberia (Georgia). Sts. the virgins were martyred by the Armenian king Tiridates. But this contributed to the conversion of his kingdom through the preaching of St. Gregory the Illuminator, who c. 305 became the first bishop of Armenia. And 15 years later, St. Nina Gruzinsky managed to convert Tsar Marian to Christianity. Thus, the Christianization of Armenia and Georgia are almost simultaneous and interconnected events.

The era of persecution ended with the accession of St. equal to ap. Constantine the Great. A new period in the history of the Church began.

Period of Ecumenical Councils (IV-VIII centuries)

Under Constantine the Great and his successors, Christianity quickly became the state religion. This process has a number of features. The conversion of huge masses of yesterday's pagans sharply lowers the level of the Church, contributes to the emergence of mass heretical movements. Interfering in the affairs of the Church, emperors often become patrons and even initiators of heresies (for example, monothelitism and iconoclasm are typical imperial heresies). Ascetic Christians hide from these troubles in the deserts. It was in the IV century. Monasticism flourished rapidly and the first monasteries appeared. The process of overcoming heresies takes place through the formation and disclosure of dogmas at the seven Ecumenical Councils. This conciliar reason allows Christianity to realize itself more and more deeply in the form of patristic theology, confirmed by the ascetic experience of outstanding ascetics.

Saint Nicholas, Archbishop of the World of Lycia († c. 345-351) - a great saint of God, originally from Patara. In the 290s - Bishop of Patara. OK. 300 - Bishop of the World of Lycia. He suffered martyrdom for the faith and a long prison term in the persecution of imp. Galeria (305-311). Subsequently, a participant in the First Ecumenical Council. Especially glorified as a miracle worker and protector of those in distress. Commemorated on December 6 and May 19.

Arianism is the first mass heresy of an antitrinitarian nature, rationally substantiated by the Alexandrian presbyter Arius (256-336), who taught that the Son of God is not contemporaneous with the Father, but is His highest creation, i.e. God only in name, not in essence. The First Ecumenical Council (325) condemned this teaching, affirming the consubstantiality of the Son with the Father. But the emperors Constantius (337-361) and Valens (364-378) supported the followers of Arius and subordinated almost the entire Church to them. St. Athanasius the Great and the so-called Saints Athanasius the Great fought against this modernized Arianism until the very end of the century. Great Cappadocians.

Saint Athanasius the Great (c. 297-373) - refuted Arius at the First Ecumenical Council, while still a deacon. At the same time (c. 320), in an early work "The Word on the Incarnation of God the Word", he taught that "It became human so that we could be deified" (chap. 54), expressing in one inspired intuition the whole essence of Orthodoxy. From 326 g - Bishop of Alexandria. During the years of the Arian reaction, he was deprived of his chair 5 times and spent a total of 17 years in exile and exile. He lived in the desert among the founders of monasticism. The life of St. Anthony, many writings against the Arians ("History of the Arians", etc.), two books against Apollinaris of Laodicea on the Orthodox meaning of the incarnation, etc. rightly called "the father of Orthodoxy." Commemorated May 2nd.

"Great Cappadocians":

Saint Basil the Great (c. 330-379) - one of the three Ecumenical teachers, philosopher, ascetic and theologian. Having received an excellent education in the best schools of Athens (together with St. Gregory the Theologian), he retired to the desert, where he founded a cenobitic monastery (258) and compiled for him the “Monastic Rules”, which became the basis of all subsequent monasticism, even in Russia. From 364g. - presbyter, and from 370g. - Archbishop of Caesarea of ​​Cappadocia, who united 50 dioceses against the Arians. Founder of the so-called. Cappadocian theological school, which avoided the extremes of the Antiochian and Alexandrian schools. Compiler of the rank Divine Liturgy and "monastic rules". Of his works, the most famous are "Conversations on the Six Days" and the book "On the Holy Spirit". Commemorated January 1 and 30.

St. Gregory the Theologian (or Nazianzus; c. 330-390) - one of the three Ecumenical teachers, philosopher, ascetic, poet and great theologian, for whom theology was the knowledge of God, i.e. path to worship. In 372, against his will, he was appointed by his friend, Basil the Great, to the bishop of Sasim. Since 379 - Patriarch of Constantinople captured by the Arians, restorer of Orthodoxy in it and chairman of the Second Ecumenical Council, at which he left the patriarchate "for the sake of church peace." The most famous of his 45 "Conversations" and theological poems. Commemorated 25 and 30 January.

Saint Gregory of Nyssa (c. 332 - 395) - Father of the Church, philosopher and theologian, ml. brother of Saint Basil the Great. Since 372 Bishop of Nyssa (in 376-378 he was deposed by the Arians). Member of the II Ecumenical Council. Author of the so-called. "Great Catechism", in which he completed the teaching of the Cappadocians about the Holy Trinity and the Person of Jesus Christ. He left many exegetical and moral-ascetic writings. In his theology (especially in eschatology) he was influenced by Origen, but avoided his delusions. Commemorated January 10th.

Pneumatomachy, or "the heresy of the Dukhobors", which is associated with the name of the Bishop of Constantinople Macedonia (342-361). It was taken up by the later Arians as a natural continuation of their doctrine: not only the Son, but also the Holy Spirit are created and only similar to the Father. This heresy, among others, was condemned by the Second Ecumenical Council.

Saint Epiphanius of Cyprus († 403) - a native of Palestine, an ascetic, a disciple Reverend Hilarion Great. Since 367 Bishop of Constant (in Cyprus). Knowing many languages, he collected all kinds of information about various heresies. The main work "The Book of Antidotes" lists 156 heresies. In the treatise "Ankorat" (Greek "Anchor") reveals the Orthodox teaching.

Saint John Chrysostom (c. 347-407) is one of the three Ecumenical teachers, a brilliantly educated preacher and exegete from the Antioch school of Diodorus of Tarsus. From 370 - an ascetic, from 381 - a deacon, from 386. -presbyter, from 398 - Patriarch of Constantinople. His pastoral uncompromisingness aroused the resentment of Empress Eudoxia and the intrigues of envious people. In 404 he was unjustly condemned and exiled. Died on the way. He left a huge literary and theological heritage (more than 800 sermons alone) and the order of the Divine Liturgy. Commemorated November 13 and January 30.

Rise of Monasticism in Egypt, Syria and Palestine

In all three named areas, monasticism arose independently of each other. But Egyptian monasticism is considered the most ancient. Its founder, the Monk Anthony the Great, as early as 285, withdrew into the depths of the desert to Mount Colisma (Comm. January 17). His disciple, the Monk Macarius of Egypt, laid the foundation for asceticism in the Skete Desert (Comm. January 19), and the Monk Pachomius the Great founded c. 330 the first Egyptian monastery in Tavennisi. Thus, we see that monasticism arises in three forms at once: hermitage, skete life, and community life.

In Palestine, the founders of monasticism were the Monk Khariton the Confessor - the builder of the Faran Lavra (330s) and the Monk Hilarion the Great (Comm. 21 Oct.). - the builder of the Lavra near Mayum (c. 338).

In Syria - the Monk James of Nisibis († 340s) and his disciple the Monk Ephraim the Syrian (373), who is also known as the founder of the Edessa-Nisibian theological school 1 poet-psalmist. Commemorated January 28th.

From the 5th century the era of Christological heresies begins (about the Person of Jesus Christ), the forerunner of which was

Apollinaris of Laodicea († 390) is a theologian philosopher, a participant in the First Ecumenical Council, and a fighter against the Arians, and from 346 to 356 - Bishop of Syrian Laodicea. From 370 he developed a very risky Christology according to which "Christ is the Logos in a human form", i.e. the embodied Divine mind, and the rational part of the human soul (i.e. human nature!) is absent in Him. This doctrine was condemned at the Second Ecumenical Council. But the question of the image of the union of the two natures in Christ remained open. A new attempt to solve it was

Nestorianism is a Christological heresy, named after the Patriarch Nestorius of Constantinople (428-431), who taught that the Virgin Mary should be called the Mother of Christ, because. She gave birth not to God, but only to the man Christ, to whom the Divinity subsequently joined and dwelt in Him as in a temple. Those. the two natures in Christ have remained separated! This concept of separate and parallel functioning in the God-Man of His two natures was condemned at the Third Ecumenical Council (431) on the initiative of St. Cyril of Alexandria. However, his speech against Nestorius was hasty and not very intelligible. It created confusion and division.

Fleeing from persecution, the opponents of St. Cyril emigrated to Persia, which was hostile to Byzantium (the so-called Chaldean Christians), and at the Council of 499 they separated from the Church of Constantinople. having formed its own patriarchy with a residence in the city of Seleucia-Ctesiphon (modern Baghdad). Further see "Syro-Persian (Assyrian) Church".

St. Cyril Bishop of Alexandria (444) is an erudite theologian (an expert on Plato and Greek philosophy), a profound irrationalist, a sharp and temperamental polemicist, he rightfully crowns the "Golden Age of Patristics" in the East, and his creations are the pinnacle of Alexandrian theology. However, the neglect of "ratio" made his concepts not quite clear. He, for example, did not distinguish between the terms "nature" and "hypostasis" and allowed expressions like "the unified nature of God the Word incarnate."

This literally understood "single nature" of Christ was justified by his ardent supporter Archimandrite Eutyches in his struggle against the Nestorians. Thus Eutyches fell into the opposite extreme: Monophysitism. This is a Christological heresy, which asserts that although the God-man is born from two natures, but in the act of their union, the Divine nature absorbs the human. And therefore Christ is no longer consubstantial with us in humanity.

The II Ephesian (robber) Council (449), presided over by Bishop Dioscorus (successor of St. Cyril of Alexandria), forcibly established the Monophysite heresy in the East as a true Orthodox confession. But St. Pope Leo the Great called this council a "robber gathering" and insisted on convening a new Ecumenical Council in Chalcedon (451), which condemned both Nestorianism and Monophysitism. True teaching The Council expressed in an unusual antinomian form ("unconfused" and "inseparable"), which caused temptation and prolonged "Monophysite confusion":

The Monophysites and the seduced monks seized Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem, driving out the Chalcedonian bishops from there. A religious war was brewing.

To prevent it, imp. Zeno in 482 published the so-called. The Geyotikon is a compromise agreement with the Monophysite hierarchy on a pre-Chalcedonian basis. Pope Felix II accused Constantinople of apostasy from Chalcedon. In response, Patriarch Akakios of Constantinople (471-488) excommunicated the pope. Thus was formed "Akakievskaya schism" - a 35-year gap between East and West.

Of the great ascetics of this troubled time, St. Simeon the Stylite († 459) is mentioned, who practiced a rare type of Syrian asceticism - standing on a stone pillar (the ultimate restriction of space). The last pillar was 18 meters high. In total, the monk stood for approx. 40 years, vouchsafed various grace-filled gifts of the Holy Spirit. Commemoration 1 Sept.

"Areopagitics" (Соgrus Ageoragiticum) - a collection of four treatises and ten letters on dogmatic topics attributed to the Schmch. Dionysius the Areopagite († 96), most likely appeared at the turn of the 5th and 6th centuries. and had a huge influence on the development of apophatic (negative) theology.

St. imp. Justinian (527-565) and his reign is a whole era of ecclesiastical and political history. The son of a simple peasant, but versatile educated, extraordinarily active, an outstanding politician, theologian, ecumenist, Justinian was the initiator of the V Ecumenical Council (553). But his attempt at reconciliation with the Monophysites came too late; they have already formed their own church organizations, from which the so-called. Oriental family of Old Orthodox Churches. And the grandiose attempt to restore a unified Roman Empire exhausted the forces of Byzantium and led to a protracted political crisis.

Of the ascetics of this era, the following are mentioned: the Monk Savva the Sanctified († 532) - from the age of eight he was brought up in a monastery, by the beginning of the Monophysite turmoil (456) he came to the Jerusalem desert, where he became a disciple of the Monk Euthymius the Great, and after his death he founded the Great Lavra (480s). In 493, he was appointed head of all hermit monasteries, for which he wrote the first liturgical charter. Of his disciples, the Monk Leontius of Byzantium († c. 544) is especially famous. Commemoration 5 December

Saint John of the Ladder († c. 605) - c. 540 entered the Sinai Monastery of St. Catherine, from 565 to 600, he labored in the nearby desert, and then, at the age of 75, he was elected abbot of Mount Sinai and wrote his famous "Ladder", which is still the reference book of every monk. Commemorated on the fourth week of Great Lent.

The Monk Abba Dorotheos († c. 619), in the monastery of Abba Serida near Gaza, was a disciple of the Monk Barsanuphius the Great. Subsequently, he retired from the monastery and at the end of the 6th century. founded his own monastery, in which he wrote for the brethren his famous "Soulful Teachings".

The last attempt to reconcile with the Monophysites (and thereby preserve the religious integrity of the empire) belongs to imp. Heraclius (610 - 641). For the sake of this, a special Christological platform was invented -

Monothelitism - heresy imp. Heraclius and Patriarch Sergius, suggesting that the two natures in Jesus Christ are united by the unity of the Divine will. Condemned at the VI Ecumenical Council (680 - 681), which confirmed the truth that only two wills in Jesus Christ make it possible to understand Him as True God and the true man (without which the deification of human nature is impossible - the goal Christian life).

The first to feel this heresy was St. John the Merciful, since 609 - the Patriarch of Alexandria, who provided free food for all the poor of Alexandria (7 thousand people!), For which he was nicknamed the Merciful. Shortly before his death († c. 619), he intercepted the correspondence of Patriarch Sergius with the leader of the Monophysites, George Ars, and wanted to immediately raise the issue of heresy, but did not have time ... Memory 12 November.

Saint Sophronius, Patr. Jerusalem († 638) - the spiritual son of the blessed. John Moschus († c. 620), with whom he traveled to the monasteries of Syria, Palestine and Egypt (collecting material for the "Spiritual Meadow"). For a long time he lived in Alexandria with St. John the Merciful. In 634 he was elected patriarch of Jerusalem and immediately issued a district message against the Monothelites. But at this time, Jerusalem was blockaded by the Arabs and after two years of siege plundered. During the desecration of churches, Saint Sophronius died in sorrow and grief. Left Life Reverend Mary Egyptian and interpretation of the Divine Liturgy. Commemorated March 11th.

Saint Maximus the Confessor († 662) is the main fighter against the monothelite heresy. Secretary of the imp. Heraclius, from whom c. 625 retired to the Kizichesky Monastery of St. George, and then to Sev. Africa. Becomes a student of St. Sophronius, and after his death he leaves for Rome, where he condemns monothelitism at the Lateran Council of 650. For disagreeing with the will of the heretic emperor, he was arrested, tortured (tongue and right hand). He died in Georgian exile, leaving a great theological legacy. His main work: "Mystagogia" (Secret Science). Commemorated January 21st.

Iconoclasm is the last imperial heresy that condemned icon veneration as idolatry. This heresy was erected by the emperors from the Isaurian dynasty. In 726 Leo III (717-741) issued an edict against icons and relics, and in 754 his son Constantine V (741-775) held a false council against icon veneration. The heresy was condemned at the 7th Ecumenical Council (787), but despite this, Emperor Leo V (813-820) and his successors renewed it. The final Triumph of Orthodoxy over heresy came at the Council of 843.

The Monk John of Damascus († c. 750) was the main fighter against the iconoclastic heresy at its first stage, having developed the theology of the icon. His main work, An Exact Exposition of the Orthodox Faith, was a model for all subsequent expositions of Christian dogma. In the prime of his life, he left his high post (1st Minister of Caliph Velida) to the Lavra of St. Savva the Sanctified, where he studied hymnography, composed the tones of the Oktoikh and wrote c. 64 canons (including our Paschal). Pam, December 4

The Monk Theodore the Studite († 826) was the main fighter against the iconoclastic heresy at its second stage. A monk, and then hegumen of the Olympic Monastery, he was not afraid to excommunicate the imp. Constantine V, for which he was exiled. Tsarina Irina returned him to the capital Studion Monastery, from where he fearlessly denounced Leo V, for which he was tortured and again exiled to Bethany, where he died. His ascetic instructions occupy the entire fourth volume of the Philokalia. Commemorated November 11th.

After that, the iconoclastic orientation was preserved only by the Paulician sect, which grew up on the basis of Marcionism and Manichaean dualism, rejected church rituals, priesthood, veneration of the Mother of God, saints, etc.

The period after the Ecumenical Councils (IX - XX centuries)

St. Patriarch Photius and the Schism 862-870 The predecessor of Photius, St. Patriarch Ignatius was a strict ascetic and canonist, who was deposed by imp. Michael III the Drunkard and exiled (857). It was then that he was elevated to the patriarchate of the state. secretary Fotiy is a learned man, but a secular one. Ignatius sent an appeal to the Pope himself. The power-hungry Pope Nicholas I made a case and in 862 declared Photius' patriarchate illegal. Outraged by this interference, Photius wrote the District Epistle (866) to the Eastern Patriarchs, calling them to trial the pope. . Basil I deposed Photius and returned Ignatius. At the IV Council of Constantinople in 870, Photius was condemned, and this Council, which recognized the correctness of Rome, is considered by Catholics to be the VIII Ecumenical. However, when Patriarch Ignatius died in 879, the Fifth Council of Constantinople in 880 acquitted Photius and again raised him to the patriarchate. He was finally deposed in 886 by imp. Leo VI the Wise. Schism 862 - 870 usually seen as a rehearsal for the final break with Rome in 1054.

"Macedonian Renaissance" - this is usually the name of the rule of a strong Macedonian dynasty in the period from Basil I the Macedonian and Leo VI the Wise to Basil II the Bulgar Slayer inclusive (ie from 867 to 1025).

The events parallel to this period are already in many respects related to the emerging Russia.

So, already in his District Epistle, Patriarch Photius reports on the attack of Askold and Dir on Constantinople, which was miraculously saved by intercession Holy Mother of God, after which part of the Russians were baptized (860).

Sts. equal to ap. Cyril and Methodius in 858, on behalf of Photius, go to Chersonesos, where they acquire the relics of St. Pope Clement. According to some assumptions, among the baptized Khazars there could be their tributaries - the Slavs. In 863 Sts. brothers at the invitation of the book. Rostislav arrive in Moravia, where they translate into Slavic the liturgical parts of the Holy Scriptures and the main church rites. Both are commemorated on May 11th.

On October 1, 910, Blessed Andrew for the sake of the holy fool contemplated the Protection of the Most Holy Theotokos in the Blachernae Church (a vision especially important for Russian Mariology).

Hike book. Oleg to Constantinople (907) forces the Byzantines to pay close attention to Russia. At the end of the predatory campaigns of St. book. Olga is baptized in Constantinople. And soon her grandson St. equal to ap. book. Vladimir helps Vasily II suppress the dangerous rebellion of Varda Foka and receives the hand of his sister, Princess Anna. But first, of course, he accepts baptism, and then baptizes his people. (Further events in the section of the Russian Orthodox Church)

so-called. The "separation of the Churches" (see page 31 for details) was at first perceived as yet another schism. Contacts with Zap. Church sporadically continued. Under the emperors from the Komnenos dynasty, the crusader knights went through Constantinople to liberate the Holy Sepulcher. But the constant struggle for the throne at the turn of the 12th and 13th centuries leads Byzantium into decline and ends with the calling of knights who devastate Constantinople (1204). Throughout the East, a so-called. Latin Empire. Greek statehood is concentrated in the Nicene region. Only in 1261 did Michael VIII Palaiologos regain Constantinople. Realizing that Byzantium, cut off from the West, is doomed, he, with the support of Patriarch John Vekka, concludes the Union of Lyon in 1274, which lasted only 7 years. However, imp. Andronicus III (1328-1341), having been defeated by the Turks, again enters into negotiations on the unification of the Churches with Pope Benedict XII. These negotiations go through the Calabrian monk Varlaam and unexpectedly lead to extremely important Palamite disputes:

Saint Gregory Palamas († 1359) - Athos monk-hesychast, in 1337-38. begins a dispute with a Calabrian monk about the nature of the Light of Tabor, Varlaam argued that this is a "subjective insight" (for God is incomprehensible), and accused Palamas of the Messalian heresy, Palamas answered with three "Triads" (i.e. 9 treatises), in which he proved that God, inaccessible in His essence, reveals Himself in His uncreated energies. These energies are able to adore a person and give him an experienced comprehension of God Himself. The doctrine of Palamas was considered at the Council of Constantinople in 1341 and recognized as Orthodox.

However, he was soon again accused by the Bulgarian monk Akidin, excommunicated from the Church (1344) and imprisoned. But the Council of 1347 justified him again. From 1350 to 1359 Saint Gregory Palamas - Archbishop of Thessaloniki. Memory 14 Nov.

Meanwhile, the Turks continued to approach Constantinople, and the imp. John VIII (1425 - 1448), hoping for help from the West, was forced to conclude the Union of Florence in 1439. However, among the Orthodox people, the union did not have any support and the Council of Constantinople in 1450 condemned it. And three years later Constantinople was taken by the Turks and Byzantium came to an end (1453).

The Patriarch of Constantinople became a Turkish subject. The position of the Orthodox was constantly deteriorating in the 17th and 18th centuries. became terrifying. In other places, it came to the general massacre of Christians. The rights of the patriarch were gradually reduced to zero. Against this gloomy background, a rather bright personality looks

Patriarch Samuil (1764-68; † 1780). Strong-willed and well educated, he reformed church government and established a permanent Synod with whom he shared responsibility for the Church. He constantly strove for the supremacy of Constantinople: in 1766 he subjugated Serbian autocephaly, ordained the patriarchs of Antioch and Alexandria, and so on. But soon he was deposed by his own Synod.

The more humiliated and dependent the Patriarchs of Constantinople felt themselves, the more they sought to subjugate the autocephalous Slavic Churches and "slander" them. When in 1870 the Bulgarian Church rejected the Greek episcopate and the Greek liturgical language imposed upon it, the Council of Constantinople in 1872 condemned the Bulgarians as schismatics who deviated into phyletism. Thus an important precedent was set. In the XX century. it would not hurt to remember that phyletism is a heresy that attaches more importance to the national idea than to the truths of faith and church unity.

In the context of a general decline, when the Orthodox Churches stopped developing their theology and even began to forget their own dogma, the appearance of symbolic (doctrinal) books was especially important:

"Orthodox confession" - the 1st symbolic book of the Orthodox Church. Compiled on the initiative of the Metropolitan of Kyiv Peter Mohyla and presented to him for consideration and approval by the fathers of the Iasi Cathedral of 1643, who, supplementing it, released it under the title "Orthodox Confession of the Greeks". Russian translation 1685

"Epistle of the Eastern Patriarchs" - the 2nd symbolic book of the Orthodox Church. Written by Patriarch Dositheus of Jerulim and approved by the Council of Jerusalem in 672. It was translated into Russian in 1827. It consists of 18 members interpreting the dogmas of the Orthodox faith.

WESTERN CHRISTIANITY

Western churches:

1. Catholicism

Unlike the Orthodox Churches, Roman Catholicism impresses, first of all, with its solidity. The principle of organization of this Church is more monarchical: it has a visible center of its unity - the Pope of Rome. In the image of the Pope (since 1978 - John Paul II) apostolic authority and teaching authority are concentrated Roman Catholic Church. Because of this, when the Pope speaks ex sathedga (that is, from the pulpit), his judgments on matters of faith and morals are infallible. Other features of the Catholic faith: the development of the Trinitarian dogma in the sense that the Holy Spirit proceeds not only from the Father, but also from the Son (lat. filigue), the dogma of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary, the dogma of purgatory, etc. The Catholic clergy take a vow of celibacy (the so-called celibacy). Baptism of children is supplemented by confirmation (i.e. chrismation) at the age of approx. 10 years. The Eucharist is celebrated on unleavened bread.

The formation of Catholic doctrine began in the 5th-6th centuries. (Blessed Augustine, St. Pope Leo the Great, etc.). Already in 589, the Council of Toledo accepted the Filiogue, but despite this, both Churches went on together for a long time. However, frightened by the scope of the Eastern "imperial heresies", the Catholics sought support in Roman legalism, in strengthening papal authority and external power. This increasingly alienated the Churches from each other, making the schisms of 862 and 1054 inevitable. And subsequent attempts at reconciliation were built according to the traditional Uniate model for Catholicism - completely unacceptable for the Eastern Church.

It should be noted here that the unity of the Catholic Church, based on the primacy of the Pope, is not only a strong but also a flexible doctrine. It allows you to form the so-called. unions, i.e. unions with various confessions, which, accepting the leadership of the Catholic Church, preserve their traditional practice of worship. An example is the modern Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church(UGCC), which is the successor to the Brest Union of 1596 (see diagram). Another example: the Catholic Churches of the Eastern Rite, which broke away from various branches of Eastern Christianity: the Maronite Patriarchate, the Greek Catholic Melchite Patriarchate, the Assyro-Chaldean Church. The Syro-Malankara Church (Catholics of the Antiochian rite), the Armenian Catholic Church and the Coptic Catholic Church (not marked on the diagram).

Thus, one should not exaggerate the centrality of Catholicism. A classic example: the Old Catholics, who separated from the Roman Church in 1870 during the First Vatican Council without accepting the dogma of papal infallibility. In 1871, on the initiative of Priest I. Dellinger, a professor at the University of Munich, an independent Old Catholic Church was formed, ruled by bishops and the Synod. Old Catholics reject the dogmas of the primacy of the Pope, the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary, and others. Currently, their communities exist in Germany, France, Switzerland, Australia and the USA. True, their number is small. A more numerous entity is the National Church of the Philippines (NCP), which separated from the Roman Catholic Church in 1904 and now has more than 4 million Catholic believers (not indicated on the diagram due to lack of space).

2. Protestantism

appeared as a result of the European anti-Catholic movement, which at the beginning of the 16th century. completed the so-called. Reformation. Objectively, this was the reformation of the ossified and medieval in spirit of the Catholic Church in the interests of the emerging bourgeoisie. Subjectively, Luther and his associates had a lofty goal: to cleanse the Church of later distortions, to restore its apostolic purity and simplicity. They did not understand that the Church is a living Divine-human organism, the development of which cannot be reversed and reduced to infancy. Rejecting the extremes of Roman Catholicism, they themselves fell into extremes, "cleansing" the Church from Holy Tradition, from the decrees of the Ecumenical Council, from the spiritual experience of monasticism, from the veneration of the Blessed Virgin Mary, all saints, icons, relics, angels, from prayers for the dead and etc. Thus Protestantism essentially lost the Church. Formally, it is based on the Bible, but in reality it is based on its arbitrary interpretation by various theologians. The main and common thing in Protestantism is the doctrine of a person’s direct (without the Church) connection with God, of salvation by personal faith alone (Rom III. 28), which is understood as confidence in one’s chosenness and inspiration from above.

In all other respects, Protestantism is extremely decentralized: it exists as a multitude of completely heterogeneous Churches, sects and religious associations. It is not always easy to trace the connection of modern Christian denominations with their original forms of the Reformation period. Therefore, in the upper left corner of the diagram, instead of church historical events, we place the genealogy of the most famous Protestant movements.

From the 16th century:

Anglicanism - arose during the English Reformation, which was used to strengthen royal absolutism. In 1534, Henry VIII severed relations with the Vatican and became head of the Church. Since 1571 - Creed of 39 members, Preserved: church hierarchy (with episcopate and celibate clergy), magnificent cult, Liturgy, sacramental understanding of the Eucharist, etc. Anglicanism is closest to Catholicism and Orthodoxy, especially the so-called. High Church. The Low Church is more typical Protestantism. The Broad Church is more ecumenical.

Lutheranism is the largest Protestant denomination founded by Luther and now widespread in many countries up to America and South. Africa. She retained from Catholicism everything that does not directly contradict Holy Scripture: the church organization, the episcopate, the Liturgy with a mysterious understanding of the Eucharist, the cross, candles, organ music, etc. In practice, it has only two sacraments: Baptism and Communion (although, according to Luther's Catechism, Confession is also allowed). The Church is understood only as the invisible community of the justified and regenerated by personal faith.

Zwinglianism is a Swiss variant of Protestantism founded by Zwingli. An extremely radical and completely non-church teaching that rejects the Christian sacraments (baptism and communion are understood purely symbolically). It has now almost completely disappeared into Calvinism.

Calvinism is a predominantly French variant of Protestantism, more radical than Anglicanism and Lutheranism. Baptism and communion are understood symbolically. There are no bishops, pastors do not have special vestments, there is not even an altar in the churches. Divine services are reduced to preaching and singing psalms. A distinctive feature is the doctrine of absolute predestination: God initially determined some to perish, others to salvation (success in business indicates a possible chosen one).

Calvinism currently exists in three forms:

• Reformed - the most common, French-Dutch variant (in France they were also called "Huguenots");
• Puritanism (or Presbyterianism) - Anglo-Scottish variant:
• Congregationalism is a radical English Puritanism that denies a single church organization. Each community (congregation) is completely independent and independent,

Anabaptism is a movement of extremely radical Protestant sects that arose during the German Reformation. The name literally means "re-baptizers", because. they did not recognize the baptism of children and rebaptized adults. Sacraments, rituals and clergy were rejected. At the heart of this denomination is not even the Bible, but personal faith.

From the 17th - 18th centuries:

Methodism is a sectarian movement in the Anglican Church founded at Oxford University by the Wesley brothers. The cult is close to Anglicanism, but the sacraments are understood symbolically. Methodists are deeply indifferent to dogmatics. Their main focus is on righteous behavior and charity (the so-called method). Characterized by developed missionary activity and skillful influence on believers through emotional preaching.

Pietism is a mystical sectarian movement in Lutheranism founded by Philipp Spener († 1705). Rejects both entertainment and church rituals, placing above all the religious feeling of the personal experience of God.

The Mennonites are a sectarian movement founded in the Netherlands by Menno Simons († 1561). The preaching of non-resistance and pacifism is combined with chiliastic expectations. They retained only the rite of baptism, which is understood symbolically. Subsequently, they were divided into "gupfers" and "fraternal Mennonites" (in Russia).

Baptism is the largest Protestant sect that arose in Holland in 1609. Genetically descended from the English Congregationalists, who also assimilated some of the views of the Mennonites and Arminians (Dutch Calvinists). Hence - the doctrine of predestination, the preaching of non-resistance and elements of mysticism. Baptism and communion (breaking bread) are interpreted as symbolic rites. They have their own holidays and rituals.

American Baptism is the largest (after Catholicism) religious organization in America (over 35 million people). Founded by the English Congregationalist Roger Williams in 1639. It exists in the form of a number of unions, societies and missions. Leads a very active missionary activity - incl. and in Russia, covering capitalist attitudes and private enterprise.

From the 19th - 20th centuries:

The Salvation Army is an international philanthropic organization that spun off from Methodism in 1865. It is organized along military lines. He believes that baptism and communion are not obligatory, the main thing is the moral revival of society.

Haugeanism is a Norwegian offshoot of pietism, requiring the confirmation of faith by deeds, an independent understanding of the gospel and its more active propaganda.

Adventists (from Latin adventus - advent) - a Protestant sect founded in 1833 by the American W. Miller, who calculated the date of the second coming of Christ (1844) from the book of the prophet Daniel. They are close to the Baptists, but the main emphasis is on the expectation of the imminent end of the world (the so-called Armageddon) and the subsequent millennial reign of Christ (the so-called Chiliasm).

Seventh-day Adventists prioritize the Jewish command to keep the Sabbath. It is believed that the souls of people are mortal, but will be resurrected after Armageddon.

Jehovists separated from American Adventists in the 1880s. and in 1931 adopted the name Jehovah's Witnesses. After the Second World War, they turned into a worldwide movement. It is believed that the second coming has already taken place invisibly in 1914, and now Armageddon is being prepared, which will lead to the death of all people, with the exception of the Jehovists themselves - they will remain to live on the renewed earth in the kingdom of Jehovah. The denial of the Trinitarian and Christological dogmas, as well as the immortality of the soul, characterizes the "witnesses" more as a Jewish than a Christian sect.

The Pentecostals broke away from the Baptists in Los Angeles in 1905-1906. as a new charismatic movement. They teach about the incarnation of the Holy Spirit in every believer, a sign of which is "speaking in tongues." In their meetings they practice artificial exaltation and ecstasy. They exist in the form of scattered communities.

In 1945 part of the Pentecostals united with evangelical Christians (related to classical Baptism) in a more moderate and centralized movement.

Note. In addition to the "natural" Protestant denominations that are genetically derived from each other, there is also a kind of "super-Protestantism", i.e. artificially invented cults that bring enormous income to their founders. As the first example of such a cult, the diagram shows

Mormons (Saints last days) - a religious society founded in 1830 by the American visionary Smith, who allegedly received a revelation and deciphered the records of the mythical Jewish prophet Mormon, who sailed to America with his people ca. 600 B.C. so-called. The Book of Mormon is for the "last saints" a continuation of the Bible. Although Mormons practice baptism and accept a semblance of the Trinitarian dogma, it is extremely risky to consider them Christians, because. there are elements of polytheism in their doctrine.

For the same reason, we do not show D. H. Noyes' Oneid Church, Sun Moon's "Unity Church", "Church of God", "Christian Science", etc. on the diagram. All these associations have nothing to do with Christianity.

Donicean period (I - early IV century)

The initial stage of the Church in the West was associated with the two main cultural centers of Europe: Athens and Rome. Apostolic men worked here:

ssmch. Dionysius the Areopagite - student of St. Paul and the first Bishop of Athens, a philosopher by profession. Several letters and treatises on Christian mysticism are attributed to him. According to legend, ca. 95 he was sent to St. Pope Clement at the head of the Mission to preach in Gaul and died there in the persecution of Domitian c. 96 Commemorated 3 Oct.

St. Clement, Pope of Rome - disciple of St. Peter, an outstanding preacher (his epistle to the Corinthians has been preserved), he was persecuted by the imp. Trajan was exiled to the Crimean quarries and c. 101 drowned. His relics were found by Sts. Cyril and Methodius. Memory 25 Nov.

OK. 138 - 140 years. in Rome, the Gnostic heretics began their preaching: Valentinus, Kerdon and Marcion.

Gnosticism replaced faith with esoteric knowledge (gnosis). It was an attempt to develop Christianity through the models of pagan philosophy, Jewish mysticism and magic. It is not for nothing that Simon Magus (Acts VIII. 9-24) is considered the forerunner of Gnosticism. The Gnostics also used the doctrine of the docets about the "appearance" of the incarnation of Christ and the heresy of the Nicolaitans, who believed that Christ freed them from the laws of morality. Like them, many Gnostics led a deliberately immoral lifestyle, for they saw their justification no longer in Christ, but in the sophistication of their own doctrines. "Gold can wallow in the mud without getting dirty," they said of themselves. This was a great temptation for the Church.

To combat Gnosticism, the schmch arrived in Rome. Justin Philosopher. In Athens, at the same time, the apologists Kodrat and Athenagoras (also a philosopher) acted. Thus, in the struggle against heresies, Christian theology arose.

Shmch. Irene of Lyons is considered the father of Christian dogma. He was a student of ssmch. Polycarp of Smyrna, and c. 180 became bishop of the Lyon Church in Gaul, where he wrote an extensive work "Five books against heresies." Martyred in the persecution of the imp. Septimius Severus c. 202 Comm. 23 Aug.

Quintus Tertullian was also an outstanding theologian and one of the later apologists. He lived in Carthage (Northern Africa), where approx. 195 became a presbyter. A brilliant antinomian and author of many political treatises, he is famous for his rigorism and paradoxical opposition of faith to reason (“I believe because it is absurd”). This militant irrationalism of ca. 200 took him away from the Church to the Montanist sect.

Shmch. Ippolit Rimsky - a student of schmch. Irenaeus of Lyon, philosopher, apologist, exegete, hereseologist and church writer, bishop of the port of Rome. His main work "The Refutation of All Heresies" (in 10 books) is directed against the Gnostics. He also fought against the antitrinitarian teachings of Sabellius. Martyred in the persecution of the imp. Maximinus Thracian c. 235 Commemorated January 30

Sabellius - heretic, presbyter of Libya, in the beginning. 3rd century arrived in Rome and began to teach that God is not trinity and all three Persons are only modes of His Unity, which manifests itself sequentially: first in the form of the Father. then the Son and finally the Spirit. This antitrinitarian teaching had the same effect in the West as the similar heresy of Paul of Samosata in the East.

In 251, the Church was persecuted by the imp. Decia is one of the most bloody and devastating. In Rome, Pope Fabian immediately died and his pulpit was empty for 14 months. The remarkable theologian Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage, was forced to flee and hide. Not all Christians could endure cruel torture - some renounced Christ and fell away from the Church. At the end of the persecution, the question arose: is it possible to take them back?

Saint Cyprian of Carthage and the new pope Cornelius believed that this was possible (under certain conditions, of course). The rigoristic Roman presbyter Novatian believed that the Church should not forgive and get dirty with sinners. He accused Cornelius of unacceptable concessions, and proclaimed himself the true successor of Fabian (the so-called antipope) and the head of the so-called. "Churches of the Pure" ("Kafar"). Saints Cyprian and Cornelius at the Council of 251 excommunicated the Novatians from the Church for mercilessness and violation of canonical discipline. During the next persecution ssmch. Cyprian voluntarily accepted death for Christ. Such is the history of one of the first disciplinary schisms (the so-called Novatian).

He had big consequences, because the end of the Donicean period was marked by the largest persecution of the emperors Diocletian and Galerius (302 - 311). There were a huge number of Sts. martyrs, but also many who have fallen away. The devastation was supplemented by political turmoil, which ended only with the accession of Constantine the Great. In 313, Constantine granted freedom of religion to the Church (the so-called "Edict of Milan"). But some of the African bishops, led by Donatus (a rival of the legitimate Bishop Caecilian), caused a new schism, proclaiming themselves the "Church of the Martyrs", and the rest as traitors and compromisers with the godless state power (St. Emperor Constantine was baptized only before his death). Subjectively, this was a movement against the stateization of the Church in order to preserve its freedom. But objectively, it destroyed the African (Carthaginian) Church and became the main reason for its subsequent disappearance.

The Novatian and Donatist temptation of schismatic "purity" will constantly haunt the Church and will respond in the West with the heresies of the Cathars and Waldenses (see p. 33), and in the East with the movement of the Bogomils and Strigolniks.

Period of Ecumenical Councils (IV - VIII centuries)

Arianism was an external phenomenon in the West, forcibly introduced by Eastern emperors. Arianism brought to the barbarian periphery of the Western world

Wulfila († 381) - the educator is ready. He is kind. OK. 311 in a Christian family brought by the Goths from Asia Minor. Until the age of 30 he was a preacher. In 341, he received the Arian ordination in Constantinople and, as the first bishop, he infected the Germanic peoples with this heresy. Compiled the Gothic alphabet and translated the Bible into it.

Hierarch Hilarius of Pictavia († 366 .) - the leader of the Gallic bishops during the period of the struggle against Arianism ("Athanasius of the West"). From 353 - Bishop of Pictavia (Poitiers). At the Arian Council in Milan (355) he was convicted and exiled to Phrygia, where he wrote a treatise on the Trinity. Laid the foundation of Latin trinitarian terminology. After the death of the Arian imp. Constantius restored the Nicene Confession at the Council of Paris. Compiled by the so-called. Gallic Liturgy. Prominent exegete and ascetic, teacher of St. Martin of Tours. Commemorated January 14

Saint Martin of Tours († 397) - while still a soldier, led a chaste and temperate Christian life. After his retirement (372) he was a disciple of St. Hilarius. From 379 - Bishop of Tours, strict ascetic, founder of Gallic monasticism. The Marmoutier monastery he built became the center of the Christianization of Gaul. Future bishops, missionaries and ascetics were brought up here. Saint Martin is the national saint of France. Commemorated October 12th.

Saint Ambrose of Milan († 397) was at first a distinguished and brilliantly educated governor of Liguria. In 374 he was unexpectedly elected bishop of Mediolan (Milan). Having studied the works of Vel. Cappadocians, fought against Arianism, converted the Germanic peoples. Prominent liturgist, hymnographer, preacher and moralist ("Chrysostom of the West"). Augustine the Blessed teacher. Commemoration 7 December

Blessed Augustine († 430) - the greatest theologian of the Western Church, "Father of Catholicism" (in the Catholic tradition: "teacher of the Church"). He received a rhetorical education, spent 10 years in the Manichean sect. In 387, under the influence of St. Ambrose of Milan, he was baptized. From 391 - presbyter, and from 395 - bishop of Hippo (North Africa). Writes his famous "Confession". In the process of fighting the Donatist schism and heresy, Pelagia forms her own doctrines of original sin, grace and predestination. Impressed by the fall of Rome (410), he creates his main work "On the City of God" (426) - Christian historiosophy. Commemorated June 15th.

Pelagius († 420) - a heretic from Britain, became famous for his strict and moral life. OK. 400 came to corrupted Rome, where he began to teach that any person can overcome evil on his own and achieve holiness. He rejected the necessity of grace, the heredity of original sin, and so on. Twice condemned as a heretic (416 and 418), after which he left for the East and soon died. His disciples Celestius and Julian of Eklan also reduced Christianity to moralism.

Bliss. Hieronymus of Stridon († 420) - erudite monk, connoisseur of ancient and Christian literature. OK. 370 travels in the East, studying theology and the Hebrew language. From 381 to 384 he was an adviser to Pope Damasius. Since 386, he has been a hermit near Bethlehem, founded a kinovia near the cave of the Nativity (388), translated the Bible into Latin (405) and wrote a number of theological works, of which the most famous is "On famous men." Commemorated June 15th.

Saint Leo I the Great († 461) - Pope of Rome from 440. He fought the Pelagians in the West and the Monophysites in the East. He insisted on convening the Council of Chalcedon (451), which was guided by his famous Christological epistle to St. Flavian. In 452 he saved Rome from the invasion of Attila's Huns. In 455, he ransomed his flock during the ruin of the city by the Vandals. Significantly strengthened the authority of papal power (in the Catholic tradition: "teacher of the Church"). Commemorated February 3rd.

Fall of Rome. The end of the Western Roman Empire (476) The rise of the authority of the Roman popes took place against the backdrop of the decline and degradation of imperial power. All the affairs of the empire were in fact controlled by barbarian military leaders. In 476 one of them. General Odoacer, deposed the last infant emperor of the West, Romulus Augustulus. This event is considered the boundary between Antiquity and the coming Middle Ages. The main content of the period: the formation of independent barbarian states on the territory of the West. Europe and their subsequent Christianization.

Among the Franks, Clovis I Merovingian (481-511) became the builder of the state. Having defeated the Visigoths and Alemanni, he c. 496 was the first of the barbarian kings to be baptized according to the Catholic rite. Unlike his neighbors, who were all Arians, he began to rule, relying on the Catholic episcopate and received the sanction of the Church for his policies. This led the Frankish state to considerable political power and allowed it to become an empire later on.

Saint Geneviève of Paris († c. 500) - from a noble Gallo-Roman family. She became a monk at the age of 14. In 451, with her prayers, she saved Paris from the invasion of Attila. In 488, during the siege of Paris by Clovis, she passed through the enemy camp and brought 12 ships with bread to the starving city. Paris nevertheless capitulated to the Franks, but Clovis bowed to the saint. Soon the Monk Genevieve became the support of his Christian wife Clotilde and contributed to the conversion of the king. Saint patroness of Paris. Commemoration January 3:

Among the Britons, the Christian Church reaches its peak by the middle of the 5th century. In the so-called. "times of King Arthur" (real name Nennius Artorius, c. 516 - 542) it becomes an independent national Church. But the Anglo-Saxon conquest that began at the same time pushes it into the depths of the island (There, in North Wales, the last bright page of its history is associated with the name of David, Bishop of Menevia († 588). Since then, the leading role has been transferred to the independent Irish Church of St. Patrick († 461), which quickly became famous for its cultural potential. In the VII - VIII centuries. The Irish Missions will take on a major role in the Christianization of the West. Europe.

The Angles, who moved to Vost. Britain from the mainland, was a pagan religion of the Scandinavian type. Their baptism dates back to the very end of the 6th century. and is connected with the mission of the Benedictine monk Augustine († 604), sent to St. Pope Gregory I. In 597, missionaries converted Ethelbert (560 - 616), the ruler of the kingdom of Kent, to Christianity and established the Archdiocese of Canterbury there. Other Catholic bishops establish dioceses in Londinia (London) and Eborac (York). However, these ancient (from the 3rd century) chairs are also claimed by the driven to the West. coast local Old British Church. Relations with the national Irish Church are also aggravated.

The culminating point of this rivalry is the Council of Whitby (664): where the members of the Irish and Roman Churches met. After a long dispute, in which the prelate Wilfred defeated the local ascetic Cuthbert, the advantage passed to the Roman Church.

A century earlier, in Visigothic Spain, the local bishops were trying to facilitate their conversion from Arianism to the Catholic faith through the introduction of the filiogue (Toledo Sob., 589). Soon this private opinion of the Toledo bishops will receive considerable distribution (as a theologian).

Of the major church figures of that time, the scheme mentions: the Monk Benedict of Nursia († 543) - "the father of Western monasticism." Genus. in Nursia (c. Spoleto), studied rhetoric in Rome. Early began to anchor in Subyako. In 529 he founded a monastery in Monte Cassino, for which he wrote an original charter, which became a model for many subsequent charters. He became famous for miracles and missionary activities. Commemorated March 14th. His life was described by Pope Gregory the Great.

Saint Gregory I the Great († 604) - a noble family and superbly educated, he left his state post for the sake of monasticism and spent all his fortune on the construction of six monasteries. He lived for a long time in Byzantium, where he composed the Liturgy of the Presanctified Gifts. From 590 - Pope of Rome Carried out a reform of liturgical singing (the so-called Gregorian Antiphonary) and other reforms that further strengthened the authority of the papacy. Actively engaged in missionary work (including in England). For the dialogue about the life of the Italian fathers, he was nicknamed "Dvoeslov". Commemorated March 12th.

Columban the Younger († 615) - a student of the educator Komgel (602) from the southern Irish monastery of Bangor. In 585 he led a mission of 12 monks to Merovingian Gaul. In Burgundy he founded the monasteries Anegrey, Luxey and Fontanelle (for which he wrote a charter c. 590). He denounced the Queen of the Franks Brunnhilde for immorality, for which he was expelled by her (610). He wandered around Gaul, founding monasteries everywhere (the last one was in Bobbio, in the possessions of the Lombard king, where he died).

Isidore of Seville († 636) - church writer and scholar, one of the "lights of the Middle Ages", since 600 - archbishop of Seville, where he converted Jews, presided over the Council, became famous as a miracle worker and saint. He left a huge literary legacy, incl. "World Chronicle", "Etymology" (in 20 books) and three books. "Sentences" (the first systematic exposition of dogmatics). In the Catholic tradition - "teacher of the Church." Completes the period of Western patristics, when it passes into scholasticism.

The heresy of Monothelitism, which affected almost the entire Eastern Church, was nevertheless condemned in Rome at the Lateran Council of 650, presided over by St. Pope Martin, who, by order of the imp. Heraclius was captured and brought to Byzantium. where the Monk Maximus the Confessor shared the fate. He died in exile in 655. Commemorated April 14th.

This was the last major Eastern heresy that had an impact on the West, as in the 7th - 8th centuries. isolation is greatly enhanced.

Bede the Venerable († 735) - Anglo-Saxon theologian and historian, one of the "lights of the Middle Ages". From the age of 17, a Benedictine monk in the monastery of Virmot, then - in the monastery of Yarrow. From 702 - presbyter. Bible translator and commentator, philosopher, grammarian. The main work: "Ecclesiastical history of the people of the Angles" (731) - the only source on ancient English history. In the Catholic tradition - "teacher of the Church."

Boniface, the apostle of Germany, was also a pupil of the Anglo-Saxon monastery (in Wessex). Since 719 - a missionary among the wildest Germanic tribes. From 725 Bishop of Hesse and Thuringia, founder of the missionary school, creator of male and convents. From 732 - Archbishop of all Germany, great enlightener and builder of the Frankish Church (Chairman of the Frankish Council in Leptin 745). He ended his life as a martyr on June 5, 754.

Medieval period after the Ecumenical Councils (VIII - XIII centuries)

At the beginning of the 8th century, in everything Christian world there were major changes associated with the expansion of Islam. In 711, the Arabs melted down through the Strait of Gibraltar, quickly captured Spain and moved into the depths of modern France. The terrible danger looming over Europe united former enemies under the banner of the mighty Frankish majordomo Charles Martel († 741). October 17, 732 in the grandiose two-day battle of Poitiers, the Arab hordes were dispersed (for this battle, Karl received his nickname "Martell", i.e. Hammer). This highly raised the authority of the Frankish rulers. The son of Charles Martel - Pepin III the Short already felt like a king. Few remembered the real king from the dying Merovingian dynasty (Childeric III).

In 751, Pepin, with the consent of the pope, was elected to the throne and crowned by Boniface (and Childeric III was tonsured a monk). On July 28, 754, Pope Stephen II, who fled from the warlike Lombards to the abbey of Saint-Denis, anointed the new king to the kingdom. This rite, borrowed from the Byzantine emperors, meant the conformity of the election with the will of God. It was first used on the Western European continent and immediately gave the new dynasty a divine status. In gratitude for this, Pepin defeated the Lombards, took the Exarchate of Ravenna from them and presented it "as a gift to St. Peter." So in 755, Pope Stephen II received the Papal States, i.e. he also became a secular sovereign (officer until 1870), which in the conditions of that time greatly increased his authority.

The son of Pepin the Short - Charlemagne (768 - 814) wages endless wars and extends his state to almost the entire West. Europe. On December 25, 800, Pope Leo III crowns him emperor. In this way, the Roman Church, estranged from Byzantium, hopes to rely on its own empire. But almost immediately a conflict arises. In 809, Charles convenes the Aachen Council at his residence, on behalf of which he demands the recognition of the filiogue from Pope Leo. The pope stubbornly disagrees and even puts up in his temple two silver plaques with the Constantinople formula of dogma. But this makes no impression on Charlemagne.

843 - Verdun Partition: Charles' grandsons divided his huge empire into three parts (future France, Italy and Germany). At the same time, the title of emperors was retained by the German Kaisers. In the tenth century under the kings Otto I, II and III of the Saxon dynasty, Germany is extremely strengthened (the so-called "Ottonian Renaissance") and the so-called. "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation".

The accelerated growth of the state leads to the weakening of the Church. Powerful feudal lords took possession of church property and the right to investiture, and the Church became more and more secular and fell into decay. The 10th century is a time of shameful degradation of the papacy, a time of fierce struggle for the Holy See and submissive pleasing to all-powerful secular rulers.

So, Pope Benedict VIII (1012 - 1024), deposed by antipope Gregory, again receives the tiara from the hands of Henry II of Germany and, at his insistence, confirms the filiogue in the Creed (1014). The next pope, John XIX, escaping from the conspiracy, also runs to the German king, after which a tri-papacy is formed (Benedict IX, Sylvester III, John XX). Simony and unnatural vices flourish among the clergy. It is clear that the Church is in dire need of renewal. I already felt it

Benedict of Anyan († 821) - monastic reformer from a noble family. He grew up at the court of Pepin the Short and Charlemagne. In 774 he went to a monastery, but did not find true asceticism there. Then he founded his own Anyansky monastery, where he revived the charter of the Monk Benedict of Nursia in all its severity and on this basis began the reform of other monasteries of the order.

A century later, a new surge of the reform movement begins. Now it is formed on the basis of the Burgundian monastery of Cluny (founded in 910) and is called Cluny (mid-X - early XII century). In the XI century. a congregation of 3,000 Cluniac monasteries arises, which are no longer subordinate to secular feudal lords, live according to a strict charter and actively fight against simony. Reformers unite around such figures as

Peter Damiani († 1072) - a hermit, a teacher of monks, later - an abbot, since 1057 - a cardinal. An irrationalist who opposed faith to reason: God does not even obey the law of contradiction, for example, he can make the former not the former (treatise "On Divine Omnipotence"). Supporter of the symphony of Church and State. In Catholicism, a teacher of the Church.

Hildebrand († 1085) is a monastic leader from Cluny, a fighter for the purity of celibacy. Since 1054 - an influential deacon under several popes. From 1073 - Pope Gregory VII. A supporter of the absolute "dictatorship of the pope." Twice excommunicated the recalcitrant Henry IV of Germany from the Church. He continued the reform of the very institution of the papacy, which was begun by Leo IX (1049 - 1054).

The Great Schism of 1054 and the Division of the Churches. The reason was a dispute over lands in southern Italy that formally belonged to Byzantium. Having learned that the Greek rite was being supplanted and forgotten there, the Patriarch of Constantinople Michael Cerularius closed all the churches of the Latin rite in Constantinople. At the same time, he demanded that Rome recognize itself as an equal Ecumenical Patriarch in honor. Leo IX refused him this and soon died. Meanwhile, papal ambassadors arrived in Constantinople, led by Cardinal Humbert. The offended patriarch did not accept them, but only presented written denunciations of the Latin rites. Humbert, in turn, accused the patriarch of several heresies, and on July 16, 1054, he arbitrarily declared an anathema to the patriarch and his followers. Michael Cerularius responded with a Council Decree (reproducing all the accusations of Photius in 867) and anathema to the entire embassy. Thus, in terms of genre, it was another schism, far from immediately recognized as the final break between East and West.

The actual division of the Churches was a long process that took place over four centuries (from the 9th to the 12th centuries), and its cause was rooted in the growing difference in ecclesiological traditions.

As a result of the Cluniac movement, a stormy flowering of Catholicism began (late 11th - late 13th centuries): new orders were founded, theology developed (but also heresies!). Cathedrals and crusades follow each other. This general revival is facilitated by the end of the Norman threat, which for several centuries kept all of Europe in fear. But 1066 is the end of the Viking Age, when their descendants, the Norman knights, defeated the Anglo-Saxons near Hastings and established themselves in England.

Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury († 1109) - one of the founders of the scholastic method, which reconciled faith and reason on the basis of the conceptual apparatus ancient philosophers(especially Aristotle). He compiled an ontological proof of the existence of God: from the concept of God as a Perfect Being, he deduced the reality of His existence (because the incompleteness of being is imperfection). Formulated a legal interpretation of the dogma of the Atonement. In Catholicism, the teacher of the Church.

Pierre Abelard († 1142) - master of the Paris Cathedral School, an outstanding rationalist, "a wandering knight of dialectics", which he only once betrayed for the sake of love for the beautiful Eloise. Finally identified theology with philosophy. He was twice (1121 and 1141) accused of the Nestorian-Pelagian heresy. He died at rest in the Cluniy Monastery, leaving frank memories of "The History of My Disasters".

Bernard of Clairvaux († 1153) - the offspring of a famous knightly family, went through a severe school of asceticism in the Sieto monastery. In 1115 he founded the monastery of Clairvaux and became the builder of the Cistercian Order. An ardent preacher, church politician and an outstanding mystic philosopher, he developed the doctrine of 12 levels of humility and 4 levels of love, with the help of which the soul ascends to the sphere of Divine truth. Under his influence arose

Saint Victor mystical school at the monastery of St. Victor, founded on the outskirts of Paris by Guillaume of Champeaux in 1108, developed a method of contemplation and fought against rationalism. Of the Victorian philosophers known: Hugo († 1141), Richard († 1173) and Walter (XII century) Saint-Victor.

The Chartres school, founded by Bishop Fulbert († 1028), on the contrary, developed moderate rationalism. In the XII century. it was headed by: Bernard of Chartres (until 1124), then by his student Gilbert de la Porre (or Porretanus; † 1154), then by Jr. Bernard's brother - Thierry († 1155) - Abelard's comrade-in-arms and like-minded person. Adjoined: Bernard of Tours († 1167) and William of Conches († 1145).

Of the spiritual knightly orders, only three are mentioned: The Carthusian order was founded by canon Bruno of Cologne († 1101), who in 1084 built a small monastery in the Chartreuse valley. The name of this valley in the Latin form (Сartasia) gave the order its name. It was officially approved in 1176.

The Cistercian Order was founded by Robert of Molesma († 1110), who in 1098 built a monastery in the swampy town of Sito (lat. Cistercium). Under the third abbot, Stephen Harding, Bernard of Clairvaux entered Sieve (see above). By the middle of the XII century. the order becomes a cultural outpost of medieval Europe.

The Teutonic Order was founded in 1198 by a group of German crusaders at the Jerusalem hospital of St. Mary (to assist German pilgrims). Quite quickly he went over to the side of Frederick II (and the Staufen in general) in their fight against the papacy. In the XIII century. was a conductor of German expansion in the Baltic states, but in 1410 he was defeated in the battle of Grunwald.

Note. Not mentioned: Templars (since 1118), Carmelites (since 1156), Trinitarils (since 1198), Hospitallers (Johnites), Franciscans, Dominicans, Augustinians and other orders.

I Lateran Council (1123) was convened by Pope Callixtus II to approve the Concordat of Worms (1127), with the help of which a long-awaited compromise was reached in the dispute over investiture between the Roman popes and the German emperors.

II Lateran Council (1139) convened by Pope Innocent II to condemn Arnold of Brescia and the heresy of the Arnoldists (see below).

III Lateran Council (1179) convened by Pope Alexander III to condemn the heresies of the Cathars, Albigensians and Waldensians (see below).

The IV Lateran Council (1215) was convened by Pope Innocent III at the height of the crusade against the Albigensians. He again condemned the burgher heresies and actually established the Inquisition (the largest figure of which will be Torquemada). He adopted strict regulations governing monastic life. Prohibited the creation of new orders. Called Frederick II Staufen to a new crusade.

I Lyon Council (1245) was convened by Pope Innocent IV in Lyon, where he fled from Frederick II Staufen, who besieged Rome. At this Council, Frederick II was solemnly excommunicated, after which, under the influence of the pope, Henry of Raspethuringen (1246-1247) was elected German Emperor.

The Second Council of Lyons (1274) was convened by Pope Gregory X to strengthen church discipline. He established the current order of the election of popes and finally formulated the filiogue as a dogma of the Church. An important act of the Council was the Union of Lyons with the Church of Constantinople (however, having found out that Michael VIII was only imitating "unity" for political purposes, the pope excommunicated him already in 1281 "for hypocrisy").

Heresies of this period:

Arnoldists - named after Arnold of Brescia († 1155), a student of Abelard, who was the leader of the democratic opposition and the inspirer of the Roman Republic. His main heresy consisted in the denial of church possessions and church hierarchy. In this he was the forerunner of the Cathars and the Albigensians, and remotely of the Protestants.

Cathars, Albigensians and Waldensians are related teachings of the "pure" or "perfect", which arose at the end of the 12th century, but are rooted in Bogomil Manichaeism and Paulicianism. They denied everything earthly as "devilish" and, accordingly, the earthly Church, with its dogmas, sacraments, hierarchy and rituals. They preached extreme asceticism and poverty.

Crusades:

I Crusade (1096 - 1099) - announced by Pope Urban II in order to defuse the warlike energy of the feudal lords. But the knights were ahead of the foot militia under the leadership of Peter the Hermit, which was almost all killed by the Turks. In the autumn of 1096, the leaders of the campaign arrived in Constantinople: Gottfried of Bouillon - Duke of Lotharine (later the first king of Jerusalem), his brother Baldwin, Bohemond of Tarentum, Raymond VIII Count of Toulouse, Robert Curtges - Duke of Normandy and others. In the spring of 1097, the knights moved from Constantinople into the depths of Asia Minor, captured Antioch (making it the capital of the Principality of Antioch) and in 1099 took Jerusalem by storm, freeing Christian shrines from the power of the Turks.

II Crusade (1147 - 1149) - announced by Bernard of Clairvaux, after the disparate Muslim principalities united and launched a counteroffensive in the face of the crusading threat. The leaders of the campaign, Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany, were not successful and did not even reach Jerusalem.

III Crusade (1189 - 1192) was the most significant in terms of the number of participants, but also unsuccessful. Frederick Barbarossa died at the very beginning and the German knights returned back, Richard I the Lionheart quarreled with Philip Augustus and Leopold of Austria, heroically but unsuccessfully besieged Jerusalem and on the way back was captured by Leopold, who betrayed him to the hostile Henry VI of Germany.

IV Crusade (1202 - 1204) was the last of the major campaigns. The knights did not have the money to attack Jerusalem from the sea, and agreed to first conquer the city of Zadar for Venice, and then restore Isaac II Angel, who had been deposed by his brother, on the Byzantine throne. Isaac's son Alexei joined the Crusaders, promising to pay for their further campaign. In reality, of course, the crusaders did not receive money and, outraged by the perfidy of the Byzantines, plundered Constantinople. The Byzantine Empire fell apart and the Latin Empire was created on its ruins.

The rest of the crusades are rightly called "small". Of the late campaigns, we can mention VII and VIII, organized by Louis IX the Saint. Both were extremely unsuccessful. In the 7th campaign, Louis was captured by the Egyptian Sultan. In the 7th campaign, a significant part of the army died from an epidemic along with Louis himself.

Francis of Assisi († 1226) is one of the greatest Western mystics. At first - the frivolous son of wealthy parents. In 1207, under the influence of a sudden spiritual break, he left his father's house to preach evangelical poverty and love. Pope Innocent III approved his brotherhood of "minorites", soon transformed into an order. After participating in the V Kr.p. (1219 - 1220), Francis retired from the leadership of the order and spent the rest of his life in solitary prayers.

Thomas Aquinas († 1274) is the largest Catholic Dominican philosopher, whose works represent the systematic completion of Western European scholasticism. Thomas, like other scholastics, insists on the possibility of rational theology, for the God of revelation is, at the same time, the creator of reason and cannot contradict Himself. The main works: "The sum against the pagans" (1259 - 1264) and "The sum of theology" (1265 - 1274). In the Catholic tradition, the teacher of the Church, the "angelic doctor".

Bonaventure († 1274) - the largest philosopher of the Franciscan tradition, a friend of Thomas Aquinas, a follower of the mystical direction. He developed the doctrine of 6 degrees of contemplation, the highest of which is the ecstatic vision of the transcendent mysteries of God. Main work: "Guide of the soul to God." In the Catholic tradition: teacher of the Church, "seraphic doctor".

The period of the Renaissance and the New Age (XIV - XX centuries)

The 14th century opens with the rivalry between royal absolutism and the Church. The French king Philip IV the Handsome (1285 - 1314) deposes the objectionable Pope Boniface VIII (1294 - 1303) and in 1307 liquidates the Knights Templar order, which began to disturb him with its power.

These events open a new page in the history of the papacy - the so-called. Avignon captivity of the popes (1309 - 1377). Their throne is transferred to Avignon as a token of their defeat, and the popes themselves become obedient instruments of French politics. So the very first "Avignon Pope" Clement V (1305 - 1314), in order to please Philip IV, convenes

The Council of Vienna (1311 - 1312), which sanctioned the judicial arbitrariness of the king and (already retroactively!) Abolishes the Order of the Templars, accusing its leadership of witchcraft and anti-Christian rites. (for those who are interested, we recommend reading the book "Near there is before the door" by S. Nilus - note by the RPIC)

Dante Alighieri († 1321) - the first and largest representative of the Ducento, a poet with a strong theological and philosophical bias. Opponent of Pope Boniface VIII and supporter of strong imperial power. In his "Divine Comedy" he populated Hell and Paradise with political friends and enemies. In his work, the spiritual insights of the Middle Ages are replaced by mystical fantasies and subjective arbitrariness. His contemporary is

Meister Eckhart († 1327) - Dominican monk, prior of Erfurt, founder of German apophatic mysticism, who developed the doctrine of the consubstantiality of the Divine Nothing and the "groundless basis" of the soul. Having gone through all the steps of detachment from the created, the soul merges with the Baseless and returns to God, which it was before its creation. This subjective mysticism is also very characteristic of the Proto-Renaissance.

The last "Avignon pope" was Gregory XI (1370 - 1378), who was forced to move to Rome in order to more conveniently wage war with the rebellious Florence. Two popes were elected as successors to him at once: in Rome - Urban VI (1378-1339), in Avignon - Clement VII (1378 - 1394), so the "Avignon Captivity" grew into the "Great Schism" of the papacy (1378 - 1417 gg.). At the same time, even the Papal States broke up into a number of warring parts,

Catherine of Siena († 1380) - from 1362 in the Dominican Order. She was a witness to these events, but was by no means tempted by them. On the contrary, she came to Avignon, trying to reconcile Pope Gregory with Florence, and during the split she sided with Urban VI. Highly devout and mystically gifted, she dictated The Book of Divine Doctrine and is regarded in the Catholic tradition as a teacher of the Church.

Bridget of Sweden († 1373) - daughter of a Swedish magnate, mother of eight children, widowed - a Cistercian nun. In 1346 she founded the Order of the Passion of Christ and Mary. Along with Catherine of Siena, she insisted on the return of the papal throne from Avignon to Rome. The patron saint of Sweden. The book "Revelations of St. Brigid" (published in 1492) is one of the sources of creativity of M. Grunewald.

John Wycliffe († 1384) - English theologian, prof. Oxford University, forerunner of the European Reformation. Long before Luther, he spoke out against the sale of indulgences, the veneration of saints, and called for the separation of the English Church from Rome. In 1381 he completed the translation of the Bible into English. He enjoyed the protection of the king until his teaching was taken up by the plebeian heresy of the Lollards, who came out under the banner of Wat Tyler. After the uprising was suppressed, it was condemned, but it had an impact on Jan Hus.

Jan Hus († 1415) - Czech theologian, from 1398 - professor, from 1402 - rector of the University of Prague. A typical ideologue of the Reformation, a follower of J. Wycliffe: he condemned the sale of indulgences and demanded a fundamental reform of the Church along the lines of the early Christian communities. In 1414 he was condemned by the Council of Constance.

The Council of Constance (1414-1418) put an end to the "Great Schism" of the papacy. It was convened at the insistence of imp. Sigismund in Constance (modern Switzerland) and was the most representative Cathedral of the Middle Ages. He deposed all three then-existing popes and elected Martin V. In the case of heresy, the teachings of J. Wycliffe, Hus and Jerome of Prague were condemned. All three are burned as heretics (Wycliffe - posthumously). 5 decrees on the reform of the Church were adopted.

The Basel-Florence Council (1431-1449) continued the development of reforms, defending the conciliar supremacy over the pope. Pope Eugene IV (1431-1447) could not bear the loss of initiative and declared the Council dissolved. He convened a continuation of the Council in Florence, where in 1439 the Union of Florence with the Orthodox was signed. However, the main supporter of the union, the Russian Metropolitan Isidore, was deposed upon his return to Moscow. Constantinople also abandoned the union after 11 years at the request of the Orthodox people.

Girolamo Savonarola († 1498) - Dominican friar, whose sermons were the impetus for the overthrow of the Medici tyranny in Florence. Irrationalist and mystic: he strove for religious immediacy, for the restoration of the ascetic ideals of early Christianity. Partly anticipated the views of Luther. He was put on trial for heresy and executed.

Thus, the pathos of Protestantism was born already in the bowels of the Catholic Church.

The Reformation, prepared by mediaeval heresies and uncontrolled religious subjectivism, began in Germany in 1517, when Luther nailed his 95 theses against indulgences to the gates of Wittenberg Cathedral. Pope Leo X excommunicated him from the Church, but at the Imperial Diet in Worms (1521) Luther won a moral victory and was sheltered by the princes in the Wartburg fortress. While he was busy translating the Bible into the vernacular, radical theologians were at the helm of the reforms. The consequence of this was the Peasants' War of 1524-25, after the suppression of which the Reformation initiative passed from the theologians to the Protestant princes. As a result of the war of 1546 - 1555. they defeated Charles V and introduced Lutheranism into Germany. At the same time, the Reformation won in Switzerland, Holland, England and other countries of Western Europe. In Russia, reformist sentiments were reflected in the heresy of the Judaizers.

The Council of Trent (1545 - 1563) opens the era of the Counter-Reformation. Convened to affirm the faith. truths attacked by Protestants. He condemned the Protestant doctrine of justification by faith alone and of Holy Scripture as the only source of Revelation. Rejected worship in national languages. Outlined the so-called. The Tridentine Confession of Faith (1564) is a return to classical medieval Catholicism.

Counter-Reformation: Church-Political Movement of the 16th-17th Centuries. striving to restore the spiritual monopoly of the Catholic Church, to discredit the ideas of the Reformation and Renaissance culture. At the same time, this movement gave rise to a new understanding of holiness as a combination of mystical contemplation and activity. Examples:

Jesuit Order - founded in Paris by Ignatius Loyola in 1534, approved by Paul III in 1542. The order is characterized by: severe discipline and a high degree of education. Its members often led a secular lifestyle, exercising religious control over educational institutions and public institutions.

Teresa de Avila († 1582) - reformer of the Carmelite order, mystical religious writer. In 1534 she entered the Carmelite monastery "Incarnation" in Avila. In 1565, she founded her first monastery of barefoot Carmelites. Persecuted by the Inquisition. She left essays: "The Book of My Life", "The Book of Dwellings or the Inner Palace". Saint, patroness of Spain. In the Catholic tradition - a teacher of the Church.

Juan de la Cruz († 1591) - an associate of Teresa of Avila in the implementation of the reform. Since 1563 - in the Carmelite monastery. He was persecuted by the Inquisition, was in prison, from where he fled. Died in exile. Main composition: "Climbing Mount Carmel". In the Catholic tradition - a teacher of the Church.

Francis de Salle († 1622) – leader of the Counter-Reformation in Switzerland. From 1602 - Bishop of Geneva. Converted Calvinists to Catholicism. He became famous as a preacher and religious writer. Corresponded with Henry IV. Main work: "Introduction to the pious life."

Pope Innocent XI (1676 - 1689) - an outstanding church leader of the 17th century. He defended traditional Catholic values ​​in the fight against the absolutist claims of Louis XIV. In 1682, he abolished the rights of the national French Church, independent of the papacy. Subsequently beatified.

Pope Pius VI (1775 - 1799) - the last pope of the "old regime". His exceptionally long pontificate (24 years) ended already in the conditions of the French Revolution, which provoked his active opposition. However, in 1798 the French occupied Rome and expelled the pope.

Note. Thus, the influence of the Counter-Reformation was felt until the beginning of the French Revolution of 1789-1794.

Pope Pius IX (1846 - 1878) in 1854 proclaimed the Catholic dogma of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary. In 1864 he published the so-called. "Syllabus" - a list of socio-political delusions that undermine the teachings of the Catholic Church (socialism, atheism, rationalism, the demand for freedom of conscience, etc.). He convened the First Vatican Council in 1870, which proclaimed the dogma of papal infallibility in matters of faith and morality. In the same year, he finally lost the Papal States, liquidated by the revolutionary movement.

Pope Leo XIII (1878 - 1903) - the founder of the course towards the rapprochement of the Church and modern civilization (with the help of Thomism). Recognized democracy and parliamentarism. In the encyclical "Rerum novarum" ("On new things", 1891) condemns capitalist exploitation, but calls on workers not to fight, but to cooperate with employers. He speaks in favor of social justice, recalling that the only goal of the rulers is the good of the subjects.

II Vatican Council (1962 - 1965) - convened by Pope John XXIII to modernize (the so-called agiornamento) the Church. He created a new concept of church life - not power over the sacraments, but service to people. After the death of John XXIII, this direction of the Council was continued by Pope Paul VI. Particular emphasis was placed on ecumenical relations and rapprochement with the Orthodox Church: on December 7, 1965, in Rome and Istanbul (Constantinople), the letters of mutual curses between Western and Eastern Churches, after which, from the pulpit of John Chrysostom, the primates of both Churches read a joint declaration on the termination of the schism,

Note: The reconciliation of the Constantinople and Roman Churches, however, leaves complete freedom of self-determination in this matter for the rest of the autocephalous Churches of Ecumenical Orthodoxy.

Churches of Universal Orthodoxy

Ecumenical Orthodoxy is a family of local Churches that have the same dogma, initial canonical structure, recognize each other's sacraments and are in communion. Theoretically, all the Churches of Ecumenical Orthodoxy are equal, although in fact the Russian Orthodox Church claims the main role (“Moscow is the third Rome”), and the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople jealously observes its honorary “primacy of honor”. But the unity of Orthodoxy is not of a monarchical, but rather of a Eucharistic nature, for it is based on the principle of catholicity. Each Church possesses the fullness of catholicity, that is, the fullness of grace-filled life, given through the true Eucharist and other sacraments. Thus, the empirical plurality of the Churches does not contradict the dogmatic unity that we profess in Article IX of the Creed. Empirically, Ecumenical Orthodoxy consists of 15 autocephalous and several autonomous Churches. We list them in the traditional order.

The Orthodox Church of Constantinople, according to legend, was founded by St. Andrew the First-Called, who c. 60 ordained his disciple St. Stakhios the first bishop of the city of Byzantium. B. 330 St. imp. Constantine the Great founded the new capital of the Roman Empire, Constantinople, on the site of Byzantium. From 381 - autocephalous archdiocese, from 451 - Patriarchate, the center of the so-called. "Imperial heresies", fought for primacy with the Alexandrian Church, and then with Rome itself. In 1054, relations with the Roman Church were finally severed and only in 1965 were partially restored. Since 1453, the Patriarchate of Constantinople has existed on the territory of Muslim Turkey, where it has only 6 dioceses, 10 monasteries and 30 theological schools. However, its jurisdiction extends beyond the borders of the Turkish state and embraces very significant ecclesiastical areas: Athos, the Autonomous Church of Finland, the semi-autonomous Cretan Church, Episcopal sees in Western Europe, America, Asia and Australia (234 foreign dioceses in total). Since 1991, Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew has headed the Church.

The Alexandrian Orthodox Church is said to have been founded c. 67 by the apostle and evangelist Mark in the capital of Sev. Egypt - Alexandria. Since 451 - Patriarchy, the third in importance after Rome and Constantinople. However, already at the end of V - beginning. 6th century The Alexandrian Church was greatly weakened by the Monophysite turmoil. In the 7th century It finally fell into decay due to the Arab invasion, and at the beginning of the 16th century. was conquered by the Turks and until recently was in strong church dependence on Constantinople. Currently there are only approx. 30 thousand believers, who are united in 5 Egyptian and 9 African dioceses. Total number temples and prayer houses ca. 150. Divine services are performed in ancient Greek and Arabic. The Church is currently headed by His Beatitude Parthenius III, Pope and Patriarch of Alexandria.

The Antiochian Orthodox Church is said to have been founded c. 37 in Antioch by the apostles Paul and Barnabas. Since 451 - Patriarchate. At the end of V - beginning. 6th century weakened by the Monophysite turmoil. Since 637, it fell under the rule of the Arabs, and at the beginning of the 16th century. captured by the Turks and fell into disrepair. Until now - one of the poorest Churches, although now it has 22 dioceses and approx. 400 temples (including in America). Divine services are performed in ancient Greek and Arabic. It is headed by His Beatitude Ignatius IV, Patriarch of Antioch, whose residence is in Damascus.

The Jerusalem Orthodox Church is the oldest of the Orthodox Churches. the first bishop of which is considered the apostle James, brother of the Lord (? c. 63). After the Jewish War of 66-70. was ruined and lost its primacy to Rome. From the 4th century gradually recovers. In the 7th century falls into disrepair due to the Arab invasion. Today it consists of two metropolias and one archdiocese (ancient Sinai Church), has 23 temples and 27 monasteries, of which the largest is the monastery of the Holy Sepulcher. In Jerusalem itself, there are no more than 8 thousand Orthodox believers. The service is performed in Greek and Arabic. At present, the head of the Church is His Beatitude Diodorus I, Patriarch of Jerusalem.

Russian Orthodox Church - founded in 988 under St. Prince Vladimir I as the Metropolis of the Church of Constantinople with its center in Kyiv. After the Tatar-Mongol invasion, the department of the metropolis was moved to Vladimir in 1299, and to Moscow in 1325. From 1448 - autocephaly (1st independent metropolitan - St. Jonah). After the fall of Byzantium (1553) and still claims the title of "third Rome". From 1589 - Patriarchate (1st Patriarch - St. Job). Since 1667 greatly weakened by the Old Believer schism, and then by Peter's reforms: the Patriarchate was abolished (Abolition of the Patriarchate) - the so-called. Holy Synod, appointed by the emperor. Councils were not allowed.

After the fall of the autocracy, the Local Council of 1917-18 was convened, which returned the canonical leadership of the Church (St. Patriarch Tikhon). At the same time, the Church experienced severe persecution from the Soviet authorities and underwent a series of schisms (the largest of which, the “Karlovatsky” (“Karlovtsy”), still exists). In the 1930s She was on the brink of extinction. It was only in 1943 that Her slow revival as a Patriarchate began. At the Local Council of 1971, reconciliation with the Old Believers took place. In the 1980s The Russian Church already had 76 dioceses and 18 monasteries. But since 1990, the unity of the Patriarchate has been attacked by nationalist forces (especially in Ukraine). Today the Russian Church is going through a difficult and responsible period of adaptation to post-socialist reality. Heads it holy Alexy II Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia.

The Serbian Orthodox Church was founded at the end of the 9th century. Since 1219 - autocephaly. Since 1346 - the first (so-called Pech) Patriarchate. In the XIV century. fell under the yoke of the Turks and became dependent on the Church of the Patriarchate of Constantinople. In 1557 it gained independence, but after two centuries it was again subordinate to Constantinople. Only in 1879 did it again become autocephalous.

On the territory of neighboring Macedonia, Christianity has been known since the time of ap. Paul. From the 4th to the 6th century The Macedonian Church alternately depended either on Rome or on Constantinople. At the end of IX - beginning. 11th century had the status of autocephaly (with its center in Ohrid) and, possibly, participated in the Baptism of Russia. Montenegro had a special ecclesiastical fate, and the so-called. Bukovinian Metropolis.

The unification of all these Orthodox regions into a single Serbian Church took place in 1919. In 1920, the Serbian Patriarchate was restored. The fascist occupation and the subsequent socialist period caused significant damage to the Serbian Church. Nationalist tendencies intensified. In 1967, Macedonia seceded into a self-made autocephaly (under the leadership of the Archbishop of Ohrid and Macedonia). The Serbian Church is currently in a state of crisis. It is headed by Patriarch Pavel.

Romanian Orthodox Church. The first dioceses in this territory are known from the 4th century. For a long time they were in church dependence on the Patriarchate of Constantinople. From the 14th century under the rule of the Turks. In the first half of the XIX century. temporarily attached to the Russian Church. In 1865 (3 years after the formation of the Romanian state), the local Church declared itself autocephalous, but the Ecumenical Patriarchate recognized this only in 1885. In 1919. the Romanian Patriarchate was formed, which now consists of 13 dioceses, has 17 million believers and is headed by the Patriarch of All Romania, His Beatitude Theoktist.

The Bulgarian Orthodox Church was founded in 865 under St. prince Boris. Since 870 - an autonomous Church within the framework of the Patriarchate of Constantinople. Since 927 - an autocephalous archdiocese with its center in Ohrid. This ecclesiastical independence was constantly challenged by Byzantium. From the 14th century Bulgaria was under the rule of the Turks and again became dependent on Constantinople. After a stubborn struggle in 1872, the Bulgarian autocephaly was arbitrarily restored, declared schismatic by the Ecumenical Patriarchate. Only in 1945 the schism was abolished, and in 1953 the Bulgarian Church became a Patriarchate. Now She is in a state of split and crisis. It is headed by the Patriarch of Bulgaria, Holy Maxim.

The Georgian Orthodox Church was founded at the beginning of the 4th century. the labors of St. Equal-to-the-Apostles Nina (? c. 335). Initially, it was subordinate to the Patriarchate of Antioch. Since 487 - an autocephalous Church with a center in Mtskheta (the residence of the Supreme Catholicos). Under the Sassanids (VI - VII centuries) it withstood the struggle with the Persian fire-worshippers, and during the Turkish conquests (XVI - XVIII centuries) - with Islam. This exhausting struggle brought the decline of Georgian Orthodoxy. The consequence of the difficult political situation of the country was its accession to the Russian Empire (1783). The Georgian Church came under the jurisdiction of the Holy Synod as an exarchate, and the title of Catholicos was abolished. Exarchs, on the other hand, were appointed from Russians, which in 1918 was the reason for the ecclesiastical rupture with Russia. However, in 1943 the Moscow Patriarchate recognized the autocephaly of the Georgian Church as an independent Patriarchate. Now the Church consists of 15 dioceses, uniting approx. 300 communities. It is headed by the Catholicos - Patriarch of All Georgia Ilia II.

The Cypriot Orthodox Church, according to legend, was founded by St. Barnabas in 47. Initially - the diocese of the Church of Antioch. From 431 - autocephalous archdiocese. In the VI century. fell under the Arab yoke, from which it freed itself only in 965. However, in 1091 the island of Cyprus was captured by the crusaders, from 1489 to 1571 it belonged to Venice, from 1571 to the Turks, from 1878 to the British. Only in 1960 did Cyprus achieve independence and proclaim itself a republic, with Archbishop Makarios (1959-1977) as its president. Today the Cypriot Church consists of one archdiocese and 5 metropolias, has more than 500 churches and 9 monasteries. It is headed by Archbishop Chrysostomos.

Helladic (Greek) Orthodox Church. Christianity appeared on its territory under ap. Pavel. From the 4th century Greek episcopal sees were part of either the Roman or the Constantinople Church. In 1453, Greece was conquered by the Turks and entered the jurisdiction of the Patriarchate of Constantinople. Only in 1830 Greece achieved independence and began the struggle for autocephaly, which it received in 1850. But, having barely freed itself from Constantinople, it became dependent on the king. It was not until the Constitution of 1975 that the Church was finally separated from the state. At its head stood the Archbishop of Athens and all Hellas, the most blessed Seraphim.

At the same time (in the 1960s), the so-called Greek Orthodox Church broke away from the Greek Orthodox Church. True Orthodox Church of Greece (old style), consisting of 15 dioceses (including in the USA and North Africa), headed by Metropolitan Cyprian of Philia. The officially recognized Greek Church is one of the largest. It consists of 1 archdiocese and 77 metropolitanates, has 200 monasteries and has approx. 8 million Orthodox believers (out of 9.6 million of the total population of Greece).

Albanian Orthodox Church. The first Christian communities in this territory have been known since the 3rd century, and the first episcopal see was established in the 10th century. Soon a metropolis was formed, which is under the jurisdiction of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church, and from the second half of the 18th century. - under the jurisdiction of the Patriarchate of Constantinople. In 1922, Albania gained independence and gained autocephaly. The communist regime completely destroyed the small Albanian Church, but now it has risen from the dead. It is headed by His Beatitude Archbishop Anastassy.

The Polish Orthodox Church was founded in 966 under Prince Mieszko I. After the division of the Churches, the Orthodox dominated mainly in the eastern regions, where in 1235 they established an episcopal see in the city of Kholm (later in Przemysl). But in 1385, Prince Jagiello declared his state Catholic, which was the reason for the conversion of the Orthodox to Catholicism. In 1596, the Orthodox bishops, headed by Metropolitan Michael (Rogoza) of Kiev, accepted the jurisdiction of the Pope at the Brest Council. This so-called. The Union of Brest lasted until 1875, when, after the partition of Poland, the Orthodox Kholm diocese was restored. In 1918, Poland again became an independent Catholic state, and the Orthodox Church, separating itself into a self-made autocephaly, degraded more and more. Only in 1948, on the initiative of the Moscow Patriarchate, was the Polish Autocephaly recognized and its position strengthened. Today this Church has no more than 1 million believers (about 300 parishes); It is headed by the Metropolitan of Warsaw and all Poland, His Beatitude Basil.

The Czechoslovak Orthodox Church was founded on the territory of the Czech Republic (in Moravia) in 863 by the works of Sts. Equal-to-the-Apostles Cyril and Methodius. However, after the death of the Thessalonica brothers, the initiative passed to the supporters of the Latin rite. Orthodoxy survived only within the Mukachevo diocese. But in 1649 this diocese also entered into union with the Catholic Church. Only in 1920, thanks to the Serbian initiative, Orthodox parishes under Serbian jurisdiction reappeared in the Carpathians. After World War II, they turned to the Moscow Patriarchate for help and were organized first into an exarchate, and in 1951 into the Autocephalous Czechoslovak Orthodox Church. It has only 200 thousand believers and approx. 200 parishes united in 4 dioceses. It is headed by the Metropolitan of Prague and all Czechoslovakia Dorotheos.

American Orthodox Church. Exactly 200 years ago, in 1794, the monks of the Valaam Spaso-Preobrazhensky Monastery created the first Orthodox mission in America. The American Orthodox believe the Reverend Herman of Alaska (? 1837) to be their apostle. Under Archbishop Tikhon (later St. Patriarch), the See of the Aleutian Diocese was transferred from San Francisco to New York. In the very first years of Soviet power, contacts with her turned out to be very difficult. The American hierarchs were suspected of having links with the GPU, and discord intensified. In this regard, in 1971 the Moscow Patriarchate granted autocephaly to the American Church. This decision came into conflict with the interests of the Ecumenical Patriarchate, which already had 2 million American Orthodox in its jurisdiction. Therefore, the American Autocephaly has not yet been recognized by Constantinople, but exists de facto and has more than 500 parishes united in 12 dioceses, 8 monasteries, 3 seminaries, an Academy, etc. Divine services are conducted in English. The Church is headed by His Beatitude Theodosius, Metropolitan of All America and Canada.

Sendai Church Morioka Church (since October 1889) Ishinomaki Church May 14, 1889 Sendai

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universal asshole

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Universal asshole Viktor Erofeev. Akimudy: A novel. M.: RIPOL ClassicThe action of Viktor Erofeev's phantasmagoria takes place today. The embassy of the country of Akimuda, which is not marked on the map, falls like snow on its head on the Russian capital. The purpose of the guests is to find out if it is possible

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From the book Business without rules. How to break stereotypes and get super profits author Parabellum Andrey Alekseevich

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From the book Philosophy and Teaching author Sivananda Swami

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I universal situation

From the book of Aristos author Fowles John Robert

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Universal firmament Literature Universal firmament POETRY

MYTH 1: Ukraine needs an independent Local Church. UOC - Church of the Kremlin. Fifth column. This is the Russian Church in Ukraine

From the book Ukrainian Orthodox Church: myths and truth of the author

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B. Local and universal church

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II. universal speech

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II The Catholic Church as one and universal. The unity of the living and the dead. Acceptance into the unity of the flesh. Extending it to the world and the Catholic idea. The unity of love, truth (law) and truth (knowledge). Unity of theoretical and practical Truth

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universal love

From the book History of Sins. Release 1 author Egorova Elena Nikolaevna

Universal love I am the call of heaven. I am the secret of the highest purpose. I am the heartbeat of the earth. The seas would freeze without me, The hearts of people in anguish were exhausted. I am only a sound, alluring and indistinct, I am - eternal life light and celebration. I will come to you and conquer you suddenly, After all, I alone am more beautiful

IV. UNIVERSAL REALITY

From The Urantia Book author inhabitants of heaven

Christian church(from other Greek. Κυριακόν “Of the Lord, belonging to the Lord”) is a religious community of Christians united by a common faith in Jesus Christ as God and Savior, who is the founder of the Church and its Head. In ecclesiology, the Church is understood as the community of Christians of the past and present, constituting the mystical "Body of Christ" ("Body of Christ"), the "Head" of which is Christ. In religious studies, the Church is understood as a community of Christians united on the basis of a common dogma, as a separate community, or as a worldwide association of Christian communities.

Etymology

From the word "Ἐκκλησία" also comes the name of ecclesiology - a section of Christian theology that illuminates issues related to the church.

Use of the term

Secondly, it is a church as a gathering of Christians in one locality. In this sense, it is close to modern concepts of a Christian community or parish. However, there is a difference: there is no mention in the New Testament that even in large cities there was more than one such church. In modern Christianity, this is quite acceptable. It was the use of the concept of "church" in the sense of "local Christian community" that over time was associated with the premises where meetings of Christians of some kind were organized. locality or locality (see Church (structure)).

Thirdly, it is a home or small church - a gathering of Christians in one family, including relatives, neighbors and slaves (if any).

In connection with the confessional division of the Church, the meaning of the church as a Christian denomination was added to the New Testament meanings of the word (for example, the Orthodox Church, the Catholic Church, the Lutheran Church, etc.)

In addition, the word "church" is used to refer to national religious organizations within Christian denominations (e.g. Russian Orthodox Church, Syrian Catholic Church, Estonian Evangelical Lutheran Church, etc.) (see local church).

The term "church" is sometimes used as a self-designation, including by organizations whose affiliation with Christianity is disputed, for example, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the Unification Church, etc., and by brightly anti-Christian organizations, for example, the Church of Satan.

Universal Church (Church of Christ)

The existence of the Church of Christ as a certain noumenal principle is not universal evidence; therefore the Christian is required to believe in it. The Nikeo-Tsaregrad Creed speaks directly about this: "I believe in the One, Holy, Ecumenical and Apostolic Church", recognized in historic churches and most Protestant denominations.

It cannot be assumed that in our time the Church of Christ does not reside anywhere else, on the contrary, one should believe that it is the goal towards which all Churches and Church Communities should strive. In fact, the elements of this already organized Church exist, united in fullness in the Catholic Church and, without this fullness, in other communities. Therefore, although we believe that these Churches and communities separated from us suffer from some shortcomings, nevertheless they are clothed with significance and weight in the mystery of salvation. For the Spirit of Christ does not refuse to use them as means of salvation, the power of which comes from that fullness of grace and truth, which is entrusted to the Catholic Church.

Borders of the Church in Orthodoxy

According to Orthodox catechism Metropolitan Philaret (Drozdov), "The Church is an established society of people from God, united by the Orthodox faith, the Law of God, the hierarchy and the Sacraments" . The question of the boundaries of the Universal Church is currently being hotly debated in Orthodoxy. [ ] According to the most common point of view, it is believed that the Ecumenical Church coincides with the boundaries of world Orthodoxy, and those outside its canonical boundaries can belong to it “invisibly” (this is the fundamental difference between Orthodox and Catholic ecumenism, which speaks of the invisible membership of the visible Church (Orthodox or Catholic respectively), from Protestant ecumenical concepts - "branch theory" and "invisible church").

According to the "Basic principles of attitude towards heterodoxy of the Russian Orthodox Church",

1.15. The Orthodox Church, through the mouths of the Holy Fathers, asserts that salvation can only be found in the Church of Christ. But at the same time, communities that fell away from unity with Orthodoxy were never seen as completely devoid of the grace of God. The rupture of church communion inevitably leads to damage to the grace-filled life, but not always to its complete disappearance in the separated communities. It is precisely with this that the practice of accepting into the Orthodox Church those who come from heterodox communities is connected, not only through the Sacrament of Baptism. Despite the rupture of unity, a certain incomplete communion remains, which serves as a guarantee of the possibility of returning to unity in the Church, to catholic fullness and unity. 1.16. The ecclesiastical position of those who have separated cannot be unambiguously defined. In a divided Christian world, there are some signs that unite it: the Word of God, faith in Christ as God and Savior who came in the flesh (1 Jn 1:1-2; 4:2, 9), and sincere piety. 1.17. The existence of various rites (through Baptism, through Chrismation, through Repentance) shows that the Orthodox Church approaches heterodox confessions differently. The criterion is the degree of preservation of the faith and structure of the Church and the norms of the spiritual Christian life. But, establishing various rites, the Orthodox Church does not pass judgment on the degree of preservation or damage of the grace-filled life in heterodoxy, considering this a mystery of Providence and judgment of God.

At the same time, the presence in non-Orthodox confessions that have retained the formal canonical structure of apostolic succession, a real priesthood, and hence the grace of other sacraments, is debatable. The doctrine of the existence of apostolic succession outside the Orthodox Church is based on the doctrine of the reality of heretical baptism in the name of the Trinity, performed with the aim of making a person a part of the Church (4 canon, section "On Baptism", 7 session, 19 of the Ecumenical Council - Council of Trent); and also on the documents of the Ferrara-Florence Cathedral, bull of Pope Eugene 8-22 November 1439, on the indelibility of the priesthood. For the first time, the doctrine of the indelibility of the priesthood was formulated in Orthodoxy in Ukraine in the 17th century, in the great catechism of Lavrentiy Zizaniy Tustanovsky, then Peter Mogila in his breviary already expounds the doctrine of the existence of apostolic succession outside Orthodoxy. AT modern times in Russia this point of view was defended by Patr. Sergius (Stragorodsky) and prot. Sergei Bulgakov. According to this view, which is consistent with modern official teaching catholic church Not only individual non-Orthodox Christians, by virtue of their faith and piety, but also Church structures that preserve an intact succession of ordinations due to the validity of their sacraments, invisibly participate in the Church. However, the above official position of the Russian Orthodox Church leaves this question open, referring to the "mystery of Providence and the judgment of God."

Absence in Orthodox Church a single body of teaching makes possible coexistence in Orthodox theology polar points of view on the boundaries of the Church - from the extremely ecumenistic to the extremely integrist.

Borders of the Church in Protestantism

Therefore, the main “strengthening bonds” of the Church (cf. Eph.) in the view of Protestants are not the canonicity of the sacraments, but the awareness of faith in Christ and the readiness to follow Him. Thus, the Church is a collection of Christ and all His disciples, living and dead, regardless of whether there is a canonical or Eucharistic communion. Such a view causes for some evangelical denominations a fundamental rejection of child baptism (in their opinion, babies, due to their age, are not able to have faith), and also motivates the refusal to limit the Church of Christ to confessional frameworks. Thus, according to the doctrine of Evangelical Christians-Baptists, the Church is a community “People redeemed by the blood of Christ from every kindred, tongue, people and nation that are in heaven and on earth”.

In some Protestant denominations, the Church is sometimes referred to as the "invisible". This is due to the belief that God sees the Church differently than man. “The true boundaries of the Church are unknown to us, only God knows which of those who have been baptized and consider themselves members of the Church (to its various congregations) are reborn (born again) and therefore belong to the Church as a spiritual community”, says the article "The Church" in the New Geneva Study Bible. It is also emphasized there (with reference to the words of Jesus Christ, for example, Matt., Matt., Matt.) that in a church organization visible to a person there will always be people (including church hierarchs) who consider themselves Christians, but in the eyes of God not being such.

Church and state power

In the New Testament

New Testament instructs believers to treat state power as God's institution and to give due to every representative of power: “to whom to give, to give; to whom dues, dues; to whom fear, fear; who is honored, honored"(Rom.).

At the same time, in theology, the question remains sharply debatable: should any person in the state hierarchy be regarded as God-established power, or is it only about state power, as an institution. Opponents of the personalization of "God's institution" point out that in the mentioned text from the 13th chapter of the Epistle to the Romans in the New Testament, the authorities are called "God's servants" placed "for good." At the same time, there have been many cases in history when representatives of state power organized persecution of the Church or committed other unseemly acts. Another argument against the personalization of "God's establishment" is a theory common in theology, according to which in the book of the Apocalypse the name of Emperor Nero is encrypted in the "number of the beast". In this case, the emperor Nero (who organized severe persecution against Christians) looks like a prototype of Satan.

According to a number of Protestant theologians, the New Testament also affirms the principle of separation of church and state, expressed in the words of Jesus Christ: “Render therefore what is Caesar’s to Caesar, and God's God» (OK. ). “Whenever and wherever the church relied on the sword of civil power, it harmed itself, and if the state interfered in the internal routine of the church, Christianity was deprived of its spiritual beauty and descended to the level of a secular institution. […] The sphere of activity of civil power extends exclusively to temporary material matters real life their fellow citizens, while the sphere of activity of the Church of God is just on the opposite side., - noted the Baptist theologian Jacob Vince.

In history

Quite often in history, church hierarchs claimed secular power in the state and, on the contrary, the leaders of states sought to put the Church under their control. Thus, throughout the Middle Ages, there were two main types of relations between the church and secular authorities:

• The primacy of secular power over spiritual (Caesaropapism), which existed in practice in Byzantium (while the principle of symphony was officially proclaimed, that is, the agreement of the church and state as initially independent principles), in which the absolute head of secular power - the emperor - formally exercising in his person the participation of the laity in the selection of the Patriarch of Constantinople from the proposed the episcopate of candidates, in fact, single-handedly controlled his election. Emperors often intervened in dogmatic disputes, regulating dogmatics and rituals by edicts and laws. This situation arose in the Eastern Roman Empire from the time of the first ecumenical councils (beginning with the struggle against Arianism), during which church leaders appealed to the emperors in resolving dogmatic, ritual and church issues. This position was finally enshrined in the code and short stories of Emperor Justinian, but he also owns the statement "the source of all the wealth of the church is the generosity of the emperor."
• The primacy of spiritual power over secular (Papocaesarism), that is, the primacy of the church, which began to take shape in the territories of the Western Roman Empire after its collapse. This idea was first formulated by the Hippoan bishop Aurelius Augustine in his work “On the City of God” (lat. “De civitate Dei”): the main idea of ​​​​this work, written shortly after the capture of Rome by the Goths and under the impression of this event, is the replacement of the state unity of the Roman empire with spiritual unity under the leadership of the church, this thesis finally took shape in a letter from Pope Gelasius I to Emperor Anastasius I, which received the name “Duo Sunt” from its beginning. In this letter, the pope has already directly indicated that there are two authorities: secular and spiritual, and the power of the latter is more significant.

These two types of relations found their legal form in two forms of state-church agreements, called in Greek and Latin, respectively, "

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18.08.2020

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