Magic and religion are the main differences. B

Both magic and religion arise in situations of emotional stress: an everyday crisis, the collapse of the most important plans, death and initiation into the mysteries of one's tribe, unhappy love or unquenched hatred. Both magic and religion indicate ways out of such situations and dead ends in life, when reality does not allow a person to find another way, except for turning to faith, ritual, the sphere of the supernatural. In religion, this sphere is filled with spirits and souls, providence, supernatural patrons of the family and heralds of its mysteries; in magic - a primitive belief in the power of the magic of a magic spell. Both magic and religion are directly based on the mythological tradition, on the atmosphere of miraculous expectation of the revelation of their miraculous power. Both magic and religion are surrounded by a system of rites and taboos that distinguish their actions from those of the uninitiated.

What separates magic from religion? Let us begin with the most definite and conspicuous difference: in the sacred realm, magic appears as a kind of practical art that serves to perform actions, each of which is a means to a certain goal; religion - as a system of such actions, the implementation of which in itself is a certain goal. Let's try to trace this difference at deeper levels. practical art

magic has a specific and applied within the strict boundaries of the performance technique: witchcraft spells, ritual and personal abilities of the performer form a permanent trinity. Religion, in all its manifold aspects and aims, does not have such a simple technique; its unity is not reduced to a system of formal actions, or even to the universality of its ideological content, it rather lies in the function performed and in the value meaning of faith and ritual. The beliefs inherent in magic, in accordance with its practical orientation, are extremely simple. It is always a belief in the power of a person to achieve a desired goal through witchcraft and ritual. At the same time, in religion we observe a significant complexity and diversity of the supernatural world as an object: a pantheon of spirits and demons, the beneficent forces of the totem, spirits - guardians of the clan and tribe, the souls of the forefathers, pictures of the future afterlife- all this and much more creates a second, supernatural reality for primitive man. Religious mythology also more complex and varied, more imbued with creativity. Usually religious myths are concentrated around various dogmas and develop their content in cosmogonic and heroic narratives, in descriptions of the deeds of gods and demigods. Magical mythology, as a rule, appears in the form of endlessly repeated stories of extraordinary achievements. primitive people.

Magic, as a special art of achieving specific goals, in one of its forms once enters the cultural arsenal of a person and then is directly transmitted from generation to generation. From the very beginning, it is an art that few specialists master, and the first profession in the history of mankind is the profession of a sorcerer and sorcerer. Religion, in its most primitive forms, appears as a common cause of primitive people, each of whom takes an active and equal part in it. Each member of the tribe goes through a rite of passage (initiation) and subsequently initiates others himself. Each member of the tribe mourns and weeps when his relative dies, participates in the burial and honors the memory of the deceased, and when his hour comes, he will be mourned and remembered in the same way. Each person has his own spirit, and after death, each person becomes a spirit. The only specialization that exists within religion, the so-called primitive spiritistic mediumship, is not a profession, but an expression of personal talent. Another difference between magic and religion is the play of black and white in sorcery, while religion in its primitive stages is not much interested in the opposition between good and evil, beneficent and malefic forces. Here again, the practical nature of magic, aimed at immediate and measurable results, is important, while primitive religion is turned to fatal, inevitable events and supernatural forces and beings (although mainly in a moral aspect), and therefore does not deal with problems associated with human impact on the world. The aphorism that fear first created the gods in the universe is completely wrong in the light of anthropology.

In order to understand the differences between religion and magic, and to clearly represent the relationship in the triangular constellation of magic, religion and science, it is necessary at least briefly to indicate the cultural function of each of them. The function of primitive knowledge and its value has already been discussed above, and it is quite simple. Knowledge of the surrounding world gives a person the opportunity to use natural forces; primitive science gives people a huge advantage over other living beings, it advances them much further than all other creatures along the path of evolution. In order to understand the function of religion and its value in the mind of primitive man, it is necessary to carefully study the many native

beliefs and cults. We have already shown earlier that religious faith gives stability, shapes and strengthens all value-significant mental attitudes, such as respect for tradition, a harmonious worldview, personal valor and confidence in the fight against worldly adversity, courage in the face of death, etc. This faith, maintained and formalized in cult and ceremonies, has tremendous vital significance and reveals to primitive man the truth in the broadest, practically important sense of the word. What is the cultural function of magic? As we have already said, all the instinctive and emotional abilities of a person, all his practical actions can lead to such impasses when they misfire all his knowledge, reveal their limitations in the power of the mind, cunning and observation do not help. The forces on which a person relies in everyday life leave him at a critical moment. Human nature responds with a spontaneous explosion, releasing rudimentary forms of behavior and a dormant belief in their effectiveness. Magic builds on this belief, transforming it into a standardized ritual that takes on a continuous traditional form. Thus, magic gives a person a number of ready-made ritual acts and standard beliefs, formalized by a certain practical and mental technique. Thus, as it were, a bridge is erected over the abysses that arise before a person on the way to his most important goals, a dangerous crisis is overcome. This allows a person not to lose his presence of mind when solving the most difficult life tasks; maintain self-control and integrity of the personality when an attack of anger, a paroxysm of hatred, a hopelessness of despair and fear approaches. The function of magic is to ritualize human optimism, to maintain faith in the victory of hope over despair. In magic, a person finds confirmation that self-confidence, perseverance in trials, optimism prevail over hesitation, doubt and pessimism.

Casting a glance from the heights of the present, advanced civilization, which has gone far from primitive people, it is easy to see the rudeness and inconsistency of magic. But we must not forget that without her help primitive would not be able to cope with the most difficult problems of his life and could not advance to higher stages cultural development. Hence the universal prevalence of magic in primitive societies and the exclusivity of its power is clear. This explains the constant presence of magic in any significant activity of primitive people.

Magic must be understood by us in its inextricable connection with the majestic recklessness of hope, which has always been best school human character.

Myth is component common system beliefs of the natives. The relationship between people and spirits is determined by closely related mythical narratives, religious beliefs and feelings. In this system, the myth is, as it were, the basis of a continuous perspective in which the daily worries, sorrows and anxieties of people acquire the meaning of movement towards a certain common goal. Passing his way, a person is guided by a common faith, personal experience and memory of past generations, keeping traces of those times when the events took place that became the impetus for the emergence of the myth.

An analysis of the facts and the content of myths, including those retold here, allow us to conclude that primitive people had a comprehensive and consistent system of beliefs. It would be in vain to look for this system only in the outer layers of native folklore accessible to direct observation. This system corresponds to a certain cultural reality, in which all particular forms of native beliefs, experiences and premonitions related to the death and life of spirits

after the death of people, are intertwined into some kind of grandiose organic integrity. Mythic narratives intertwine with each other, their ideas intersect, and the natives constantly find parallels and internal connections between them. Myth, faith and experience associated with the world of spirits and supernatural beings are the constituent elements of a single whole. What connects these elements is an enduring desire to have communion with the lower world, the abode of the spirits. Mythic tales only lend key points native beliefs explicit form. Their plots are sometimes quite complex, they always tell about something unpleasant, about some kind of loss or loss: about how people have lost the ability to regain their youth, how witchcraft causes illness or death, how spirits left the world of people and how everything is at least a partial relationship with them.

It is striking that the myths of this cycle are more dramatic, the connection between them is more consistent, although more complex than the myths about the beginnings of being. Without dwelling on this point, I will only say that here, perhaps, the matter lies in a deeper metaphysical sense and a stronger feeling that are associated with the problems of human destiny, in comparison with the problems of the social plane.

Be that as it may, we see that myth, as part of the spirituality of the natives, cannot be explained solely by cognitive factors, no matter how great their significance may be. The most important role in the myth is played by its emotional side and practical meaning. What the myth narrates deeply disturbs the native. Thus, the myth that tells about the origin of the milamala holiday determines the nature of the ceremonies and taboos associated with the periodic return of the spirits. This narration itself is completely understandable to the native and does not require any "explanations", therefore the myth does not even to a small extent pretend to such a role. Its function is different: it is designed to alleviate the emotional tension experienced by the human soul, anticipating its inevitable and inexorable fate. First, the myth gives this foreboding a very clear and tangible form. Secondly, he reduces the mysterious and chilling idea to the level of familiar everyday reality. It turns out that the longed-for ability to restore youth, saving from decrepitude and aging, was lost by people just because of a trifling incident that could have been prevented even by a child or a woman. Death forever separating loved ones and loving people is something that can happen from a small quarrel or carelessness with hot stew. A dangerous disease occurs due to a chance meeting of a man, a dog and a crab. Mistakes, misdeeds and accidents acquire great significance, and the role of fate, fate, inevitability is reduced to the scale of a human mistake.

In order to understand this, it should be recalled once again that the feelings experienced by a native in relation to death, either his own, or the death of his loved ones and loved ones, are by no means completely determined by his beliefs and myths. A strong fear of death, a keen desire to avoid it, a deep grief from the loss of loved ones and relatives - all this is deeply contrary to the optimism of faith in the easy achievement of the afterlife, which pervades native customs, ideas and rituals. When a person is threatened with death or when death enters his house, the most thoughtless faith cracks. In long conversations with some seriously ill natives, especially with my consumptive friend Bagido "u, I always felt the same, perhaps implicitly or primitively expressed, but undoubtedly melancholic sadness about the passing life and its joys, the same horror before the inevitable the end, the same hope that this end might be postponed, even if only for a short time.But I also felt that the souls of these people were warmed by the reliable faith that comes from their faith.The living narrative of the myth blocked the abyss that was ready to open before them.

myths of magic

Now I will allow myself to dwell on another type of mythic narratives: those myths that are associated with magic. Magic, no matter how you take it, is the most important and most mysterious aspect of the practical attitude of primitive people to reality. The most powerful and controversial interests of anthropologists are connected with the problems of magic. In northwestern Melanesia, the role of magic is so great that even the most superficial observer cannot fail to notice it. However, its manifestations are not quite clear at first glance. Although literally the entire practical life of the natives is imbued with magic, from the outside it may seem that in a number of very important areas of activity it does not exist.

For example, no native will dig up a bed of bagat or taro without uttering magical spells, but at the same time, the cultivation of coconuts, bananas, mangoes or breadfruit does without any magical rites. Fishing, which is subordinate to agriculture, is associated with magic only in some of its forms. This is mainly fishing for sharks, kalala fish and to "ulam. But equally important, although easier and more accessible, methods of fishing with plant poisons are not at all accompanied by magical rituals. When building a canoe, in a matter associated with significant technical difficulties, risky and requiring high labor organization, magical ritual very complex, inextricably linked with this process and is considered absolutely necessary. But the construction of huts, technically no less difficult than the construction of a canoe, but not so dependent on chance, not subject to such risks and dangers, not requiring such great cooperation of labor, is not accompanied by any magical rites. Wood carving, which has an industrial meaning, which is taught from childhood and which is practiced in some villages by almost all the inhabitants, is not accompanied by magic, but artistic sculpture made of ebony or ironwood, which is done only by people with outstanding technical and artistic abilities, possesses the appropriate magical rites, considered the main source of skill or inspiration. Trade, kula, a ceremonial form of exchange of goods, has its own magical ritual; however, other, smaller forms of barter, which are purely commercial in nature, do not involve any magical rites. War and love, illness, wind, weather, fate - all this, according to the natives, is completely dependent on magical powers.

Already from this cursory review, an important generalization emerges for us, which will serve as a starting point. Magic takes place where a person encounters uncertainty and chance, and also where there is an extreme emotional tension between the hope to achieve the goal and the fear that this hope may not come true. Where the goals of activity are defined, achievable and well controlled by rational methods and technology, we do not find magic. But it is present where the elements of risk and danger are obvious. There is no magic when complete confidence in the safety of the event makes any prediction of the course of events superfluous. This is where the psychological factor comes into play. But magic also performs another, no less important, social function. I have already written about the fact that magic acts as an effective factor in organizing labor and giving it a systemic character. It also acts as a force that allows the implementation of practical plans. Therefore, the cultural integrative function of magic is to eliminate those obstacles and inconsistencies that inevitably arise in those areas of practice that have great social significance, where a person is not able to fully

control the course of events. Magic maintains in a person the confidence in the success of his actions, without which he would not have been able to achieve his goals; in magic a man draws spiritual and practical resources when he cannot rely on the ordinary means at his disposal. Magic instills in him faith, without which he could not solve vital tasks, strengthens his spirit and allows him to gather strength in those circumstances when he is threatened with despair and fear, when he is seized with horror or hatred, crushed by love failure or impotent rage.

Magic has something in common with science in the sense that it is always directed towards a certain goal, generated by the biological and spiritual nature of man. The art of magic is always subordinated to practical ends; like any other art or craft, it has some conceptual basis and principles, the system of which determines the way to achieve goals. Therefore, magic and science have a number of similarities, and, following Sir James Frazer, we might with some justification call magic "pseudo-science."

Let us take a closer look at what constitutes the art of magic. Whatever the specific form of magic, it always contains three essential elements. In a magical act, there are spells spoken or chanted, a ritual or ceremony, and the person who officially has the right to perform the ceremony and cast spells. Thus, when analyzing magic, one must distinguish between the formula of the spell, the rite, and the personality of the magician himself. I will note right away that in the area of ​​Melanesia where I conducted my research, the most important element of magic is a spell. To a native, to wield magic is to know a spell; in any witchcraft rite, the entire ritual is built around the repeated repetition of the spell. As for the ritual itself and the personality of the magician, these elements are conditional and are important only as an appropriate form for casting spells. This is important from the point of view of the topic we are discussing, since the magic spell reveals its connection with traditional teachings and, to an even greater extent, with mythology.

Exploring various forms of magic, we almost always find some narratives that describe and explain the origins of the existence of certain magical rites and spells. They tell how, when and where this formula came to belong to a particular person or community, how it was transmitted or inherited. But one should not see in such narratives a "history of magic." Magic has no "beginning", it is not created or invented. Magic has simply been from the very beginning, it has always existed as the most essential condition for all those events, things and processes that constitute the sphere of human vital interests and are not subject to his rational efforts. The spell, the rite and the purpose for which they are performed coexist in one and the same time of human existence.

Thus, the essence of magic lies in its traditional integrity. Without the slightest distortion and change, it is passed down from generation to generation, from primitive people to modern performers of rituals - and only in this way does it retain its effectiveness. Therefore, magic needs a kind of pedigree, so to speak, a passport for time travel. How a myth gives a magical rite value and significance, coupled with a belief in its effectiveness, is best shown by a concrete example.

As we know, the Melanesians attach great importance love and sex. Like other peoples inhabiting the islands of the South Seas, they allow great freedom and ease of conduct in sexual relations, especially before marriage. However adultery is a punishable misdemeanor, and ties within the same totemic clan are strictly prohibited. The biggest crime in

in the eyes of the natives is any form of incest. The mere thought of an illegal relationship between brother and sister horrifies and disgusts them. Brother and sister, united by the closest ties of kinship in this matriarchal society, cannot even freely communicate with each other, should never joke or smile at each other. Any allusion to one of them in the presence of the other is considered very bad manners. Outside the clan, however, freedom of sexual relations is quite significant, and love takes on many tempting and attractive forms.

The attractiveness of sex and the strength of love attraction, the natives believe, originate in love magic. The latter is based on a drama that once happened in the distant past. The tragic myth of incest between brother and sister tells of her. Here is its summary.

In one village, a brother and sister lived in their mother's hut. One day, a young girl accidentally inhaled the smell of a powerful love potion prepared by her brother to attract the affection of another woman. Mad with passion, she drew her own brother to a deserted seashore and seduced him there. Seized with remorse, tormented by pangs of conscience, the lovers stopped drinking and eating and died side by side in the same cave. Where their bodies lay, fragrant grass sprouted, the juice of which is now mixed with other infusions and used in the rites of love magic.

It can be said without exaggeration that magical myths, even more than other types of native mythology, serve as a social claim of people. On their basis, a ritual is created, faith in the miraculous power of magic is strengthened, and traditional patterns of social behavior are fixed.

The revelation of this cult-creating function of magical myth fully confirms the brilliant theory of the origin of power and monarchy developed by Sir James Frazer in the first chapters of his Golden Bough. According to Sir James, the origins of social power are to be found chiefly in magic. Having shown how the effectiveness of magic depends on local traditions, social class, and direct inheritance, we can now trace another cause and effect relationship between tradition, magic, and power.

Egypt has always been inseparable from the mythology and mysticism inherent in this part of the globe. Thanks to ancient Egyptian myths and legends later formed paganism in Russia.

Also, echoes of this culture can be observed in modern Judaism, Islam, Christianity. Many images and legends spread throughout the globe and eventually became part of modern world. Assumptions and hypotheses regarding Egyptian culture and religion are still tormenting scientists around the world, desperately trying to unravel the mysteries of this amazing country.

Main directions

The religion of ancient Egypt is diverse. It combines several areas, such as:

• Fetishism. Represents the worship of inanimate objects or materials, which are attributed to mystical properties. It can be amulets, paintings or other things.
• Monotheism. It is based on the belief in but at the same time allows the existence of other supernatural forms or several divine faces that are the image of the same character. Such a god may appear in different guises, but his essence remains unchanged.
• Polytheism. A belief system based on polytheism. In polytheism, there are whole pantheons of divine creatures, each of which is responsible for a separate topic.
• totemism. Very common in ancient Egypt. The essence of this trend is the worship of totems. Most often, these are animals that are presented with gifts in order to appease the gods through them and ask them for happy life or peace in the other world.

All these directions were formed over more than 3 thousand years, and, of course, over such a long period, the religion of ancient Egypt has experienced many changes. For example, some gods, who were in the last place in their importance, gradually became the main ones, and vice versa. Some symbols merged and turned into completely new elements.

A separate part is occupied by legends and beliefs concerning the afterlife. Due to this versatility, various branches and constantly changing rites, there was no single state religion in Egypt. Each group of people chose a separate direction or deity, which they later began to worship. Perhaps this is the only belief that did not unite all the inhabitants of the country, and sometimes led to wars due to the fact that the priests of one commune did not share the views of another, worshiping other gods.

Magic in ancient Egypt

Magic was the basis of all directions and was practically presented to people as the religion of ancient Egypt. It is difficult to summarize all the mystical beliefs of the ancient Egyptians. On the one hand, magic was a tool and directed against enemies, on the other hand, it was used to protect animals and people.

amulets

The greatest importance was attached to all kinds of amulets, which were endowed with extraordinary power. The Egyptians believed that such things could protect not only a living person, but also his soul after the transition to another world.

There were amulets on which the ancient priests wrote special magical formulas. Rites were taken especially seriously, during which spells were cast over amulets. It was also customary to put a sheet of papyrus with words addressed to the gods on the body of the deceased. Thus, the relatives of the deceased asked higher power about mercy and about the best fate for the soul of the deceased.

Figurines of animals and people

The myths and religion of ancient Egypt include stories about all sorts of animal figurines. The Egyptians attached great importance to such amulets, since such things could not only bring good luck, but also help to curse the enemy. For these purposes, a figure of a person who needed to be punished was sculpted from wax. In the future, this direction was transformed into black magic. AT Christian religion there is also a similar custom, but it, on the contrary, is aimed at healing. To do this, it is necessary to fashion a sick part of the human body from wax and bring it to the church to the icon of the saint, from whom relatives ask for help.

Along with amulets, great importance was attached to drawings and all kinds of spells. Initially, there was a tradition to bring food to the burial room and put it next to the mummy of the deceased in order to appease the gods.

After some time, when the food spoiled, the Egyptians brought fresh offerings, but in the end it all came down to the fact that next to the mummified body they placed an image of food and a scroll with certain spells. It was believed that after reading the cherished words over the deceased, the priest could convey a message to the gods and protect the soul of the deceased.

"Words of Power"

This spell was considered one of the most powerful. The ancient religions of Egypt gave pronunciation sacred texts special meaning. Depending on the circumstances, the specified spell could produce a different effect. To do this, it was necessary to give the name of one or another creature that the priest wanted to call. The Egyptians believed that it was the knowledge of this name that was the key to everything. Remnants of such beliefs have survived to this day.

Akhenaten's coup

After the Hyksos (who influenced the ancient religions of Egypt) were expelled from Egypt, the country experienced a religious upheaval, the instigator of which was Akhenaten. It was at this time that the Egyptians began to believe in the existence of a single god.

Aten became the chosen god, but this belief did not take root due to its exalted character. Therefore, after the death of Akhenaten, there were very few worshipers of a single deity. This brief period of monotheism, however, left its mark on subsequent lines of Egyptian religion.

According to one version, the Levites led by Moses were among those who believed in the god Aten. But due to the fact that it became unpopular in Egypt, the sect was forced to leave their native lands. During their journey, the followers of Moses united with the nomadic Jews and converted them to their faith. The ten commandments that are known today are strongly reminiscent of the lines of one of the chapters of the Book of the Dead, which is called "The Commandment of Denial." It lists 42 sins (one for each god, of which, according to one of the Egyptian religions, there were also 42).

At present, this is only a hypothesis that allows us to consider in more detail the features of the religion of ancient Egypt. There is no reliable evidence, but many experts are increasingly leaning towards this formulation. By the way, disputes about the fact that Christianity is based on Egyptian beliefs still do not fade away.

Egyptian religion in Rome

At the time when the mass spread of Christianity began, and Alexander the Great died, the Egyptian religion completely merged with ancient mythology. At a time when the old gods no longer met all the requirements of society, the cult of Isis appeared, which spread throughout the entire territory of the Roman Empire. Along with the new current, great interest began to appear in Egyptian magic, the influence of which by this time had already reached Britain, Germany and began to spread throughout Europe. It is difficult to say that it was the only religion of ancient Egypt. Briefly, you can imagine it as an intermediate step between paganism and the gradually emerging Christianity.

Pyramids of Egypt

These buildings have always been shrouded in hundreds of legends and beliefs. Until now, scientists are trying to unravel the mystery of how any organic objects are mummified in the pyramids. Even small animals that died in these buildings are preserved for a very long time without embalming. Some people claim that after spending some time in the ancient pyramids, they experienced a surge of energy, and even got rid of some chronic diseases.

The culture and religion of ancient Egypt are closely connected with these extraordinary buildings. This is understandable, since the pyramids have always been a symbol of all Egyptians, no matter what religious direction chosen by a particular group of people. Until now, tourists who come on excursions to the pyramids claim that in these places blunt razor blades become sharp if they are correctly placed, focusing on the cardinal points. Moreover, there is an opinion that it is not so important what material the pyramid is made of and where it is located, it can even be made of cardboard, and it will still have unusual properties. The main thing is to keep the right proportions.

Religion and art of ancient Egypt

The art of the country has always been closely associated with the religious preferences of the Egyptians. Since any image and sculpture had a mystical connotation, there were special canons according to which such creations were created.

Huge temples were erected in honor of the gods, and their images were imprinted in stone or precious materials. God Horus was depicted as a falcon or a man with a falcon's head, thus symbolizing wisdom, justice and writing. The guide of the dead, Anubis, was depicted as a jackal, and the goddess of war, Sekhmet, always appeared in the form of a lioness.

Unlike Eastern cultures, the ancient religions of Egypt presented deities not as frightening and punishing avengers, but, on the contrary, as majestic and all-understanding gods. Pharaohs and kings were representatives of the rulers of the world and were revered no less, therefore they were also drawn in the form of animals. It was believed that the image of a person is his invisible double, which was called "Ka" and was always presented in the form young man, regardless of the age of the Egyptian himself.

Each statue and painting had to be signed by their creator. An unsigned creation was considered unfinished.

The religion and mythology of ancient Egypt pay great attention to the organs of vision of man and animal. Since then, it has been believed that it is the eyes that are the mirror of the soul. The Egyptians believed that the dead were completely blind, which is why so much attention was paid to vision. According to Egyptian myth When his own brother treacherously killed, his son Horus cut out his eye and gave it to his father to swallow, after which he was resurrected.

Deified animals

Egypt is a country with a rather poor fauna, nevertheless, nature and representatives of flora and fauna were honored.

They worshiped a black bull, which was a divine creature - Apis. Therefore, in the temple of the animal there was always a live bull. The townspeople worshiped him. As the famous Egyptologist Mikhail Alexandrovich Korostovtsev wrote, the religion of ancient Egypt is quite extensive, it sees symbolism in many things. One of these was the cult of the crocodile, which personified Just as in the temples of Apis, in the places of worship of Sebek there were always live crocodiles, which were fed only by the priests. After the death of animals, their bodies were mummified (they were treated with the highest respect and reverence).

Also held in high esteem were falcons and kites. For the murder of these winged ones, one could pay with one's life.

Cats occupy a separate place in the history of Egyptian religion. The most important was always presented in the form of a huge cat. There was also one appearing in the form of a cat. The death of this animal was marked by mourning, and the body of the four-legged was taken to the priests, who cast spells over them and embalmed him. Killing a cat was considered a huge sin, followed by a terrible retribution. In the event of a fire, the cat was rescued from the burning house first, and only then the family members.

Considering ancient Egyptian mythology, it is impossible not to mention the scarab beetle. This amazing insect plays a huge role in the religion of ancient Egypt. Summary The most famous myth about him is that this particular beetle personifies life and self-rebirth.

The concept of the soul in ancient Egypt

The Egyptians shared human to multiple systems. As mentioned earlier, each person had a particle "Ka", which was his double. An additional coffin was placed in the burial room of the deceased, in which this very part was supposed to rest.

The “Ba” particle represented the very soul of a person. At first, it was believed that only the gods possessed this component.

"Ah" - the spirit, was depicted in the form of an ibis and represented a separate part of the soul.

"Shu" is a shadow. Essence human soul that is hidden on the dark side of consciousness.

There was also a part of "Sakh", which personified the body of the deceased after his mummification. A separate place was occupied by the heart, since it was the receptacle of the entire human consciousness as a whole. The Egyptians believed that during the afterlife doomsday a person could keep silent about his sins, but the heart always revealed the most terrible secrets.

Conclusion

It is rather difficult to list all the ancient religions of Egypt in a short and accessible way, since over such a long time they have undergone a lot of changes. One thing is certain for sure: the mysterious Egyptian history contains a huge number of the most unusual and mystical secrets. Annual excavations bring incredible surprises and raise more and more questions. To this day, scientists and people who are simply interested in history find unusual symbols and evidence that it was this religion that formed the basis of all the beliefs that exist today.

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Religion of Japan Magic forum Fortune cosmoenergy, magic, astrology, divination, esotericism, feng shui, mysticism, ufo. Magic and Religion Primitive beliefs Main page Rubrics Religion and mythology Magic and religion. From an animal relative to an animal ancestor. Religion and mythology, Primitive beliefs, Essays. Magic Along with totemism, magic occupied a significant place in human life. voodoo magic Religion and mythology - Primitive beliefs. Magic Along with totemism, magic occupied a significant place in human life. According to the objectives of the impact, magic religion luther mythology as historical type worldview beliefs of the ancient Greeks The real solution to problems. Rare books on magic. Dedicated learning. Abstract Religion and mythology Religion and culture Abstract: Primitive beliefs - - Bank of abstracts gold magic jewelry love magic mythology fire magic primitive tribes

beliefs of the Eastern Slavs religion magic money Matyushova. History of world religions. beliefs of primitive people Primitive beliefs. Accepted by: Radchenko A. A. Belgorod 2004 Plan. 1. The origin of religion. 2. Mythology of Australia. 3. Totemism. 4. Magic. 5. Fetishism. mythology is We see that the foundations of magical beliefs and practices are not taken from the air, the typical and most developed mythology in primitive societies is the mythology of magic. Both magic and religion are directly based on the mythological tradition. Unlike religions, the supernatural in the most ancient magical, animistic, totemistic and other primitive beliefs is not personified. To bewitch a man Culture and religion. Religion as a form of culture mythology of ancient rome beliefs The latest discovery of psychologists: The Secret of Love Words mythology and religion primitive wars free download For those who tried everything and nothing helped! primitive forms religion magic beauty - Essays - Religion and mythology - Religion in primitive society. Primitive beliefs in the era of patriarchy. pre-religious period. Totemism, magic, fetishism, mythology, animism arise in primitive society. magic of gold 19 Dec 2007 Study of magic and religion. Image by Ola. religions and primitive beliefs, to reveal the earthly origins of the religious world outlook. religions, and still less because I deduce the whole mythology from it. Totemism is a complex of beliefs and rituals of a primitive society, a complex vision of the world and human impact on the environment, which is manifested in magic. Mythology and beyond the primitive system throughout history mythology and philosophy primitive warfare beliefs of the ancient Slavs magic Religious beliefs. Estimated genesis and history - The main religion of India VIP magic religion Islam beliefs of the Indians

3. Magic and religion

Before proceeding to a detailed description of totemism, it is necessary to determine the real place of another phenomenon. It is usually relied upon when trying to separate religious faith from popular prejudices, presenting as a higher "moment" of spiritual life, independent of the regional conditions of one or another historical era. It is about the relationship between magic and religion and the alleged difference between them.

In fact, it is unthinkable to completely separate the concepts of magic and religion. Each cult includes magical practice: all kinds of prayers, from primitive to modern religions, is, in essence, a form of naive and illusory influence on the outside world. It is impossible to oppose the religion of magic without breaking with science.

The relations between man and nature that have been established since time immemorial have always had a twofold character: the dominance of omnipotent nature over helpless man, on the one hand, and on the other hand, the impact on nature that man sought to exercise, even if in limited and imperfect forms characteristic of primitive society. - using their tools of labor, their productive forces, their abilities.

The interaction of these two only outwardly incomparable forces determines the development of peculiar methods by which primitive man sought to exert an imaginary influence on nature. These techniques, in fact, are magical practice.

Imitation of hunting techniques should contribute to the success of the hunt itself. Before going in search of kangaroos, the Australians rhythmically dance around a picture depicting the much-desired prey on which the existence of the tribe depends.

If the people of the Caroline Islands want a newborn to become a good angler, they try to tie his newly cut umbilical cord to a pirogue or shuttle.

The Ainu people, the indigenous population of Sakhalin, the Kuril Islands, and the Japanese island of Hokkaido, catch a little bear cub. One of the women of the clan feeds him with her milk. A few years later, the bear is strangled or killed with arrows. The meat is then eaten together during the sacred meal. But before the ritual sacrifice, the bear is prayed to return to earth as soon as possible, to let himself be caught and continue to feed the group of people who raised him in this way.

Thus, by origin witchcraft practice not opposed to religion, but, on the contrary, merges with it. It is true that magic is not yet associated with any privileges of a social nature (in primitive society everyone can try to "pressure" the forces of nature). However, individual members of the clan begin to advance very early, claiming to have special data for this. With the advent of the first "sorcerer", the concept of "priest" also arises.

All these are indisputable signs of the formation of a religious ideology.

We have already noted that primitive society is characterized by a naive materialistic understanding of life, nature and social relations. The elementary needs of the first people, who owned everything in common and did not know the private appropriation of the means of subsistence, were evenly satisfied or not satisfied. The history of nature and the history of people merged into one: the second, as it were, continued the first.

The basic contradiction between man and the forces of nature, underlying primitive society, is not in itself sufficient to explain the emergence of the idea of ​​the other world, and even more so of the idea of ​​"evil", "sin" and "salvation". The contradictions rooted in differences in kinship, age and sex do not yet have a class character and have not given rise to any form of truly religious departure from life. It took people to realize the limitations that the new structure of society placed on them. everyday life so that, along with the decomposition of society into classes, there also arose a need for a certain “spiritual” element (as it is customary to express it in theological and idealistic philosophy), which is opposed to nature, bodily, material.

Strictly speaking, the first forms of religiosity cannot even be recognized as manifestations of ritual practice based on some kind of "supernatural" idea and thus opposed to the normal everyday customs of man. The relationship between people and their totem - an animal, plant or natural phenomenon - does not go beyond the primitive materialistic worldview with all the absurdities characteristic of it, which are preserved and retained in the beliefs of subsequent eras. Magic itself at first appears as a kind of material pressure of a person on nature or society in order to obtain certain tangible results.

Collective life itself could not "objectively manifest itself in myth and ritual," as they say. various representatives French sociological school from Durkheim to Levy-Bruhl. A society without social contradictions could never give rise to religious "alienation."

When the primitive community, based on the equal participation of its members in obtaining and appropriating products, disintegrates and gives way to a regime of private property, for this period the religious ideas of people did not go beyond the imaginary connections of the primitive group with certain animals or plants on which its members ate (such as hare, turtle, porcupine, kangaroo, wild boar, eagle, bear, deer, various types of berries and herbs, trees). But the stratification of the family and the emergence of classes led to a bifurcation of ideology, which was of exceptional importance, and gave rise to different views on nature, on the one hand, and, on the other, on the world of phenomena, which were henceforth recognized as supernatural.

four . From animal kin to animal ancestor

Totemism is the most ancient form religion that we know in the history of mankind before the era of the emergence of classes.

What exactly does "totem" mean? This word, as we have already seen, originally meant a relationship between members of a certain group of people and their alleged or actual ancestor. Later, this relationship was extended to animals and plants that serve this group to maintain existence. This expansion of ideas is itself a certain religious process. From the idea of ​​a totem, over time, a cult of animals, plants and natural phenomena will develop, which determine human life.

It is often argued that totemism cannot be considered a religious phenomenon, since the mythical kinsman and patron of the group is not yet recognized as standing above man and is not identified with any deity. Proponents of this point of view, which is supported by theologians and some rationalist scientists, simply do not take into account that the process of establishing the idea of ​​a higher being, and even more so a personified deity, could not begin before privileged groups began to prevail in society, leading strata, social classes.

In a society with a division of labor based on kinship relations and age differences, kinship relations naturally become the main type of religious ties. The animal upon which the clan's food supply depends is at the same time regarded as a relative of the group. Members of this clan do not eat its meat, just as men and women of the same group do not marry each other. This prohibition is expressed in the word of Polynesian origin - "tabu" ("tapu"), which was first heard by the navigator Cook in Tanga (1771). The original meaning of this word is separated, removed away. In a primitive society, taboo is everything that, according to the primitive man, is fraught with danger.

The taboo is imposed on the sick, on corpses, on strangers, on women at certain periods of their physiological life, and in general on all objects that, as it seems to primitive man, have an extraordinary character. Later, tribal chiefs, monarchs and priests would enter the same category. Everything that is taboo is untouchable and carries an infection; however, these ideas gave rise to some healing and cleansing prohibitions.

All these beliefs find explanation in various forms. real life and social relations, the effect of which people experienced on themselves. It was not religion that gave birth to the idea of ​​pure and impure, holy and mundane, permitted and forbidden, but social practice, which created the reflected world of legends and rituals called sacred. But, having been born, these ideas have gone the way of independent development. And the conclusion that the way of life of people and the mode of production, and not their way of thinking, led to certain ideas does not at all mean neglect of the specific meaning of ideology or the explanation of questions of religion by simple economic references.

Which of the researchers of primitive society can deny the decisive role of social relations of production?

A group of people lives by hunting, which has everywhere been an obligatory stage in the development of society. But in order to overtake the prey, it is necessary to master the extremely complex hunting art, the ideological reflection of which can be seen in the so-called rites of passage, to which only men are so far allowed. This is the purification, initiation and introduction of the young man into the number of hunters (or fish catchers).

During ritual festivities, often lasting weeks, the initiate symbolically dies in order to be reborn to a new life and be able to fulfill his duties towards society. We are still far from the ideas of redemption and salvation that arise only in the era of the highest development of slavery, when salvation, which was impossible on earth, was transferred to the realm of fiction, to the other world. But the transition of a young man into a more responsible category, in connection with his age or the skills he has acquired, bears in itself the germ of the idea of ​​​​the rites that will later develop in the religion of the "mysteries" and in Christianity itself.

Powerless in the face of nature and the collective, primitive man identifies himself with the animal ancestor, with his totem, through complex and often painful ceremonies, which ultimately increases his dependence on nature and the social environment. Out of the rite, out of the details of the cult, there arises little by little the striving to interpret reality from the point of view of myth and tradition.

When restoring the process of development of the first forms of religious ideology, it is always necessary to beware of attributing to a person cares and beliefs that can arise only in subsequent phases of the development of society.

There is no doubt that when we seek to judge the customs and attitudes that belong to an era in which the exploitation of man by man did not yet exist, it is difficult for us to get rid of the burden of old ideas accumulated over thousands of years, which are reflected in the very language in which we speak about all these issues. . It is as difficult as it is to describe now, even in general terms, the changes that will take place in the character, morals and mind of people with the disappearance of classes and the establishment of a society where freedom and equality will not be, as they are now, dubious expressions.

When, for example, we speak of a cult, we introduce a concept that could not have made sense at an ancient stage of development. human society.

For, etymologically, the idea of ​​a cult is connected with the practice of cultivating the land and presupposes a society in which production relations are already based on a primitive form of agriculture and on a corresponding division of labor between old and young, especially between men and women.

It was the women that the tribe entrusted during this period, in addition to cooking, field work, growing fruits and plants, while at the same time, men were still engaged in hunting. This period in the history of primitive society includes the advancement of women in society, which characterizes the era of matriarchy.

Traces of this era are preserved not only in religious life, in folk traditions and in the language, but also in the customs of many peoples of our time: in the Malay Peninsula, in India, in Sumatra, in New Guinea, among the Eskimos, among the Nile tribes, in the Congo, Tanganyika, Angola and South America.

The era of matriarchy explains why the most ancient fertility rites known to us are primarily characterized by the cult of a woman or the attributes of a woman (schematic representations of the details of a woman's anatomy, magical vulvar cults, etc.).

But before forcing the land to submit to the will of the person who cultivates it, society went through a period of collecting the means of subsistence, in which everyone was engaged in equal rights, a period of hunting, cattle breeding and shepherding. As long as the division of labor took place within the framework of age and kinship relations, the connection between the individual and the totem could not yet acquire the character of a genuine cult.

Each group of people within a larger association - the terms clan and tribe suggest already a fairly developed social organization - specializes in hunting a certain animal: boar, deer, snakes, bear, kangaroo. But in a society where the individual depends on others for food, this animal eventually ceases to be separated from the group itself - it becomes its symbol, its patron, and finally, its ancestor.

Complex ceremonies gradually turn the notion of a biological connection into an imaginary one. And little by little, from such ideas, the cult of ancestors arises, which is possible with a much higher degree of social differentiation and has been preserved among various peoples of India, China, Africa and Polynesia.

A person of a certain totemic group treats his animal ancestor with special reverence. Those who hunt the bear, for example, avoid eating its meat, at least during the holy fast, but feed on game taken by hunters of other groups who have a different totem. The community of people formed on the site of the disintegrated primitive horde is like a vast cooperative in which everyone must take care of food for others and in turn depends on others for their livelihood.

Blurred, but the stadial commonality can be traced everywhere. Relationship between art and religion In general, the close relationship between art and religion is determined by a number of common points. Most importantly, they express a person's value attitude to reality, to the world of being, to the meaning own life and the future of their land. Art and religion were closely intertwined in the structure of the ancient syncretic...

According to the tribes of the present time, which are in similar conditions. And again the main manifestation initial stage development of religion - totemism. It is especially pronounced among the peoples of Australia. This form of religion lies in the fact that each clan, tribe is magically related to its totem animal or object. Each member can have his own totem, there is also sexual totemism, i.e. one...

Magic for everyone has a peculiar attraction, it seems to awaken in us dormant spiritual potentialities hidden in the recesses of the soul, hopes for a miracle, faith in the unknown possibilities of man, the opportunity to find some quintessence of the most important aspirations of primitive people and their wisdom - the value of such knowledge cannot be disputed, no matter how was its content.

But sociologist sees in magic a completely prosaic, soberly calculated and even rude art, which is resorted to from purely practical considerations, which is based on some primitive and superficial beliefs, an art that boils down to performing a series of simple and monotonous tricks. The magic of primitive people is an extremely monotonous and unemotional activity with quite definite means, the circle of which is outlined by a certain set of beliefs and initial premises.

Malinovsky singles out 3 types of magic act(which the priest performs):

1) Rites in which the main elements serve to express a certain emotion . The sorcerer somehow inflicts damage, "maims" or completely destroys the object symbolizing the victim, including in these rites expressions of hatred and anger. In the rites of love magic, the sorcerer hugs, strokes and caresses an object symbolizing the object of love passion, he depicts the feelings of a madly in love who lost his head from a stunning and sizzling passion. In the rites of military magic, malice, fury of attack, martial passions are expressed in a more or less direct manner..

2) Rites in which the action is aimed at imitating a certain result ( the rite mimics its purpose). The ritual completion of witchcraft is that the sorcerer makes the last sounds in a weakening voice, then a death rattle and falls dead.

3) Rite-demonstration of magical abilities. The sorcerer gets up and, turning to the wind, calls it; the sorcerer transfers his spell to some object, enchants it.

All of these species have something in common - Magic power, its action is always transferred to the bewitched object, in other words - a certain power of a witch spell. witch spell- the most important element of the magical ritual, part of the magical secret transmitted from initiate to initiate. The magical ritual centers around witchcraft.

There are three typical elements associated with belief in the effectiveness of magical rituals:

1) Phonetic effects (imitation of natural sounds: whistling and howling of the wind, the sound of sea waves, thunder, sounds made by different animals)

2) The words, the utterance of which acts as a means to cause certain events, achieve goals, maintain or control the course of things.

3) Witchcraft involves an element for which there is no equivalent in ritual ( mythological allusions, references to ancestors and heroes of culture from which magic itself was perceived).

tradition of magic:

· Magicis a property of the relationship between this object to which it is directed and a person, this is a relationship that is not created by a person, but exists for man. Magic has always served the purposes of man and existed thanks to his knowledge.

· Magicis a specific and unique power that belongs only to man.

· Magicnot only incarnated as a person, but also human in nature: magical actions, as a rule, refer to the practical activities and states of a person - to hunting, fishing, farming, trade, love, illness and death.

· Human body - receptacle magical power and conductor, through which this force passes to other objects - it is forced to obey various conditions.

· Magic powerconcentrated only in witchcraft and the ritual associated with it and is transmitted not in any way, but only by a strictly defined procedure. It does not reveal itself in any way in physical strength, and its effect on the abilities and differences of a person is strictly limited and defined.

· mana- a concept denoting all types of forces and power, except for magic. Manna is inherent in all things: rocks, water, sea tides, plants, animals, people, wind and storm, clouds, thunder and lightning. mana- the cause of all phenomena, all actions of the human environment.

Magic and experience.

Malinowski writes that modern man resorts to a kind of magical actions when technical achievements, his experience and knowledge can no longer help him. In the power of impotent rage or blinding hatred, he clenches his fists and inflicts imaginary blows on his enemies, shouting out curses, words of anger and malice. A lover, passionately lusting for a beauty that is inaccessible or not located to him, sees her in his imagination, calls out to her, begs and demands her favor, feeling himself her chosen one, presses her to his chest in his dreams. A hunter or fisherman, frustrated with failure, sees in his imagination prey trembling in nets, or an animal pierced by a spear; he repeats their names, tries to express in words his dream of a great catch, with gestures and facial expressions depicts the appearance of what he is so eagerly thirsty for ...

At this moment, consciousness forms a clear image of the desired goal, the hated enemy, evil spirit. This image acquires a specific emotional coloring, which induces an active mindset in relation to this image. A kind of substitute activity takes place, thanks to which a person does not go crazy. A discharge sets in and obsessive visions fade away, the desired goal seems to be approaching or even achieved - a person regains balance, again feels the harmony of life.

That. foundations of magical beliefs and practices are not taken from the air, but take their origins in the many experiences that life is filled with, in the experience from which a person draws confidence in his ability to achieve his goals.

And the fact that interest in magic does not fade away and it firmly holds its positions, Malinovsky sees 2 reasons:

1) In human memory positive cases are much more persuasive than negative ones. → life situations, in which magical rituals bring success, their significance completely replaces all cases where the desired goal has not been achieved.

2) The people who adopted the magic ritual in the Stone Age undoubtedly possessed great intelligence, spiritual energy and enterprise, they more often than others achieved success, no matter what they undertook → in the eyes of primitive people, magic looked like the reason for the success that accompanied their actions.

Magic and mythology

With t.sp. of magic, myth- this is not a dead legacy of past centuries, existing in culture only as a kind of entertaining narrative. it living force, constantly causing new phenomena surrounding magic with ever new evidence of its power. Magic moves in the glory of a past tradition, but it is always surrounded by an atmosphere of constantly self-regenerating myth. The flow of mythical stories about the past is constantly merging with the stories that form the folklore of this tribe.

· Myth- this is not a collection of primitive ideas about the principles of all things that have a purely philosophical background;

· Mythis not the result of the contemplation of nature or some kind of symbolic generalization of its laws;

· Mythappears as a historical judgment about some event, the very existence of which once and for all testified in favor of some magical action.

· Sometimes myth turns out to be a fixation of a magical mystery leading to the beginning of the first person to whom this mystery was revealed in a significant incident. Myth narrates how a magical secret was revealed to some kind, tribe or clan.

· Mythis the guarantee of the magical mystery, its genealogy, the charter of its rights to the minds of men.

· Every faith has its own mythology for there is no faith without miracles, and myth mostly simply retelling some original miracle, accomplished through magic.

· Myth associated with any form of social force or social claims to power (it is used to justify special privileges, duties, social inequalities, rank differences).

· Myth functionis not to explain, but to confirm, do not satisfy curiosity, but give confidence, do not weave tales, but connect the meanings of different beliefs, relating them to a continuously ongoing stream of events.

Magic and science

Magic and religion

: It's not hard to see the crudeness and failure of magic. But we must not forget that without her help primitive man would not have been able to cope with the most difficult problems of his life and could not have advanced to higher stages of cultural development. Hence the universal prevalence of magic in primitive societies and the exclusivity of its power is clear. This explains the constant presence of magic in any significant activity of primitive people. Magic must be understood by us in its inextricable connection with the majestic folly of hope, which has always been the best school of human character.

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17.07.2020

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